个人需求与市场需求.ppt
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1、2002 South-Western Publishing,DEMAND ANALYSIS,OVERVIEW of Chapter 3Demand RelationshipsDemand ElasticitiesIncome ElasticitiesCross Elasticities of DemandAppendix 3A:Indifference Curves,Health Care&Cigarettes,Raising cigarette taxes reduces smokingIn Canada,$4 for a pack of cigarettes reduced smoking
2、 38%in a decadeBut cigarette taxes also helps fund health care initiativesThe issue then,should we find a tax rate that maximizes tax revenues?Or a tax rate that reduces smoking?,Demand Analysis,An important contributor to firm risk arises from sudden shifts in demand for the product or service.Dema
3、nd analysis serves two managerial objectives:(1)it provides the insights necessary for effective management of demand,and(2)it aids in forecasting sales and revenues.,Demand Curves,Individual Demand Curve the greatest quantity of a good demanded at each price the consumers are Willing to Buy,ceteris
4、 paribus.,Willing to Buy,Unwilling toBuy,$/Q,Q/time unit,個人需求曲線,定義一條能顯示在不同價格下個別消費者願意購買數量的曲線假設其他條件不變,在某個價格上所購買的數量縱軸價格橫軸數量,圖2-1 個人需求曲線,價格(元場),數量(場月),個人需求曲線,100,200,400,300,1 2 3 4 5 6 7,500,需求曲線:兩個要點,在每個可能的價格上,顯示需求的數量價格數量觀點:建構個人需求曲線的方法顯示顧客對每單位願意支付的最高價格,就是它的邊際利益數量價格觀點:用於訂價策略;顯示購買者願意購買的最大價格,需求曲線:向下傾斜的曲線
5、,需求曲線都具有負斜率邊際利益遞減每多消費一單位商品所帶來的邊際利益會小於前一單位商品的邊際利益邊際利益遞減需求曲線向下傾斜(斜率為負)你願意花多少錢租一個500平方公尺的公寓?再多500平方公尺的話,你願意出多少錢?第3個500平方公尺,你願意出多少錢?,The Market Demand Curve is the horizontal sum of the individual demand curves.The Demand Function includes all variables that influence the quantity demanded,4 3 7,SamDian
6、e Market,Q=f(P,Ps,Pc,I,W,E),+-?+,表2-3 市場需求,市場需求,市場需求個人需求曲線的總和在每個價格上,把每個人的需求數量加起來可以在表中體現在圖上也可以顯示,影響市場需求的因素,價格消費者的所得所得分配相關財貨價格廣告,影響市場需求的因素(續),人口數量年齡與中國相比,日本社會老齡化對醫療和藥品的需求就不同種族漢人喜歡吃豬肉,新疆人不可,人口年齡分布,案例2-7 哪些印度人會買冷氣機?,印度人每年購買超過8萬台價值600美元的冷氣機印度平均國民所得不到1,000美元印度的所得分配非常不平均(貧富差距大)國民所得的兩種衡量國民生產總值國內生產總值國民生產總值國外
7、資源的收入當估計市場需求時,若個別市場的所得愈不平衡,考慮所得的實際分配就愈重要,Supply Curves,Firm Supply Curve-the greatest quantity of a good supplied at each price the firm is profitably able to supply,ceteris paribus.,$/Q,Q/time unit,Able to Produce,Unable toProduce,The Market Supply Curve is the horizontal sum of the firm supply cur
8、ves.The Supply Function includes all variables that influence the quantity supplied,4 3 7,Acme Universal Market,Q=g(P,W,R,TC),+-+,Equilibrium:No Tendency to Change,Superimpose demand and supplyIf No Excess Demandand No Excess SupplyNo tendency to change,D,S,Pe,willing&able,Q,P,Downward Slope,Reasons
9、 that price and quantity are negatively related include:income effect-as the price of a good declines,the consumer can purchase more of all goods since his or her real income increased.substitution effect-as the price declines,the good becomes relatively cheaper.A rational consumer maximizes satisfa
10、ction by reorganizing consumption until the marginal utility in each good per dollar is equal:Optimality Condition is MUA/PA=MUB/PB=MUC/PC=.If MU per dollar in A and B differ,the consumer can improve utility by purchasing more of the one with higher MU per dollar.,Comparative Statics and the Supply-
11、Demand Model,Suppose a shift in Income,and the good is a“normal”goodDoes Demand or Supply Shift?Suppose wages rose,what then?,D,S,e1,P,Q,Elasticity as Sensitivity,Elasticity is measure of responsiveness or sensitivityBeware of using Slopes,bushelshundred tons,price priceper perbu.bu,Slopes change wi
12、th a change inunits of measure,Price Elasticity,E P=%change in Q/%change in PShortcut notation:E P=%Q/%PA percentage change from 100 to 150A percentage change from 150 to 100Arc Price Elasticity-averages over the two points,D,arc priceelasticity,自身價格彈性(Own-Price Elasticity),定義在其他條件不變下,當價格變動1%時,需求量變動
13、的百分比公式 數量變動比例價格變動比例數量變動百分比 價格變動百分比,Arc Price Elasticity Example,Q=1000 at a price of$10Then Q=1200 when the price was cut to$6Find the price elasticitySolution:E P=%Q/%P=+200/1100-4/8or-.3636.The answer is a number.A 1%increase in price reduces quantity by.36 percent.,弧彈性法,定義利用兩個價格與相對應數量之間的平均值來計算自身彈
14、性的大小計算需求曲線上兩點之間的平均彈性公式需求量變動比例除以價格變動比例例子香菸的價格從一包30元漲到一包33元香菸的需求量由150萬包降到144萬包彈性-4.1%9.5%-0.432,圖3-1 弧彈性法,需求量變動比例(144150)0.5(144+150)=4.1價格變動比例(33-30)(33+30)0.5=9.5,自身價格彈性的特性,必然是負數因為更高的價格,引起需求數量的減少是個純數值,其大小與所使用的衡量單位無關是數量變動百分比與價格變動百分比的比值介於零與負無限大之間,自身價格彈性的範圍,具有彈性的需求價格上升1%,使得需求量下跌超過1%缺乏彈性的需求價格上升1%,使得需求量下
15、跌少於1%,表3-1 市場需求的自身價格彈性,表3-1 市場需求的自身價格彈性(續),都是負數因為更高的價格導致了需求的數量的下降根據市場價格,美國對外國製小汽車的需求彈性比國產汽車還高,直覺的因素,市場是否具有直接或間接的替代品電子郵件是DHL傳送的間接替代品DHL是Fedeal Express的直接替代品買方是否有事前的承諾汽車零配件電腦軟體尋找較低價格時所需的成本及其可能帶來的利益經濟化的成本與收益:低參與度產品;比較,Point Price Elasticity Example,Need a demand curve or demand function to find the pri
16、ce elasticity at a point.E P=%Q/%P=(Q/P)(P/Q)If Q=500-5P,find the point priceelasticity at P=30;P=50;and P=80E QP=(Q/P)(P/Q)=-5(30/350)=-.43E QP=(Q/P)(P/Q)=-5(50/250)=-1.0E QP=(Q/P)(P/Q)=-5(80/100)=-4.0,Price Elasticity(both point price and arc elasticity),If E P=-1,unit elasticIf E P-1,inelastic,e.
17、g.,-0.43If E P-1,elastic,e.g.,-4.0,price,elastic region unit elastic inelastic region,Straight linedemand curve,TR and Price Elasticities,If you raise price,does TR rise?Suppose demand is elastic,and raise price.TR=PQ,so,%TR=%P+%QIf elastic,P,but Q a lotHence TR FALLS!Suppose demand is inelastic,and
18、 we decide to raise price.What happens to TR and TC and profit?,價格變動對買方支出的影響,如果需求有彈性,則買方支出下降購買量的減少比例會比價格增加的比例高,所以買方支出會減少如果需求缺乏彈性,則買方支出增加購買量的減少比例會比價格增加的比例小,所以買方支出會增加買方支出賣方收入,價格變動對賣方利潤的影響,價格增加使收入增加銷售額下降使收入減少,價格變動對賣方利潤的影響(續),淨值取決於價格彈性如果需求缺乏彈性,賣方利潤會增加如果需求是缺乏彈性的,賣方應該漲價銷售減少的比例比價格增加的比例小,所以銷售收入會增加。銷售低成本低,所以
19、利潤會增加回顧美國航空公司CEO Robert Crandall的評論航空公司盡可能地對商務旅行者訂定高價(因為他們的需求是缺乏彈性的),Another Way to Remember,Linear demand curve TR on other curveLook at arrows to see movement in TR,Elastic Unit Elastic Inelastic,TR,QQ,1979 Deregulation of Airfares,Prices declinedPassengers increasedTotal Revenue IncreasedWhat doe
20、s this imply about the price elasticity of air travel?,案例3-4 損益平衡,所有標價都是港幣,1港幣0.125美元亞洲華爾街日報要達到損益平衡,必須達到6.158S70.5,也就是S11.45,所以其自身價格彈性必須少於-0.41(比如,-0.5或-1.0),案例3-4 損益平衡(續),根本問題需求是不是具有充分的彈性?訂閱數量增加也刺激了廣告收入區別本案和百事可樂可口可樂的案例亞洲華爾街日報希望透過降價獲得利潤百事可樂可口可樂希望透過漲價提高利潤,案例3-5 早餐麥片的訂價策略,對前十名品牌麥片的自身價格彈性只有-0.7對其他小廠品牌的
21、彈性只有-0.6問題關鍵消費者是否對價格敏感?漲價總會降低銷售量真正的問題是,漲價會怎樣影響利潤?,預測銷售收入,價格上漲將會:透過價格影響使銷售收入上升透過銷售量影響使銷售收入下降如果需求是缺乏彈性的,提高價格會增加銷售收入和利潤,Determinants of the Price Elasticity,The number of close substitutesmore substitutes,more elasticThe proportion of the budgetlarger proportion,more elasticThe longer the time period p
22、ermittedmore time,generally,more elasticconsider examples of business travel versus vacation travel for all three above.,Income Elasticity,E I=%Q/%I=(Q/I)(I/Q)arc income elasticity:suppose dollar quantity of food expenditures of families of$20,000 is$5,200;and food expenditures rises to$6,760 for fa
23、milies earning$30,000.Find the income elasticity of food%Q/%I=(1560/5980)(10,000/25,000)=.652,Definitions,If E I is positive,then it is a normal or income superior goodsome goods are Luxuries:E I 1some goods are Necessities:E I 1 If E QI is negative,then its an inferior goodconsider:Expenditures on
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