生物化学ii(苏维恒)糖酵解.ppt
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1、糖 代 谢,Chapter11 糖酵解作用(Glycolysis),一、糖类基础知识回顾二、糖酵解作用的研究历史三、糖酵解过程概述四、糖酵解和酒精发酵的全过程图解五、糖酵解第一阶段的反应机制六、糖酵解第二阶段放能阶段的反应机制七、由葡萄糖转变为两分子丙酮酸能量转变的估算八、丙酮酸的去路九、糖酵解作用的调节十、其他六碳糖进入糖酵解途径,糖代谢总论Glycolysis is a Ubiquitous pathway,糖代谢包括分解代谢和合成代谢。动物和大多数微生物所需的能量,主要是由糖的分解代谢提供的。另一方面,糖分解的中间产物,又为生物体合成其它类型的生物分子,如氨基酸、核苷酸和脂肪酸等,提供碳
2、源或碳链骨架。植物和某些藻类能够利用太阳能,将二氧化碳和水合成糖类化合物,即光合作用。光合作用将太阳能转变成化学能(主要是糖类化合物),是自然界规模最大的一种能量转换过程。,新陈代谢与糖类的分解有密切的联系,因为糖类的分解对生物体来讲,具重要的意义。,糖类作为能源物质 Energy stores(e.g.starch,glycogen).生物细胞的各种代谢活动,包括物质分解和合成都需要有足够的能量,其中ATP是糖类降解时通过氧化磷酸化作用而形成的最重要的能量载体物质。生物细胞只能利用高能化合物(主要是ATP)水解时释放的化学能来做功,以满足生长发育等所需要的能量消耗。,2.作为合成生物体内重要
3、代谢物质的碳架和前体 It provides precursors for the biosynthesis of glucose,amino acids,nucleotides,fatty acids,sterols,heme groups,etc.葡萄糖、果糖等在降解过程中除了能提供大量能量外,其分解过程中还能形成许多中间产物或前体,生物细胞通过这些前体产物再去合成一系列其它重要的物质,包括:(1)乙酰辅酶A、氨基酸、核苷酸等,它们分别是合成脂肪、蛋白质和核酸等大分子物质的前体。(2)生物体内许多重要的次生代谢物、抗性物质,如生物碱、黄酮类等物质,它们对提高植物的抗逆性(抗旱等)起着重要的
4、作用。次生代谢物(secondary metabolites)是指某些植物或微生物生长到稳定期前后,以结构简单、代谢途径明确、产量较大的初生代谢物为前体,通过复杂的次生代谢途径所合成的各种结构复杂的化合物。,3.细胞中结构物质 Structural(e.g.Cellulose is the structural component of the primary cell wall of green plants,chitin in arthropod exoskeletons and fungal walls).如:植物细胞壁等是由纤维素、半纤维素、果胶质等物质组成;甲壳质或几丁质为N-乙酰葡
5、萄糖胺的同聚物,是组成虾、蟹、昆虫等外骨骼的结构物质。这些物质都是由糖类转化物聚合而成。,4.参与分子和细胞特异性识别 Recognition of molecules outside a cell(e.g.attached to proteins or lipids on cell surface membrane).由寡糖或多糖组成的糖链常存在于细胞表面,形成糖脂和糖蛋白,参与分子或细胞间的特异性识别和结合,如抗体和抗原、激素和受体、病原体和宿主细胞、蛋白质和抑制剂等常通过糖链识别后再进行结合。,糖与多糖,糖类物质是一类多羟基醛或多羟基酮类化合物或聚合物;糖类物质可以根据其水解情况分为:单
6、糖、寡糖和多糖;在生物体内,糖类物质主要以均一多糖、杂多糖、糖蛋白和蛋白聚糖形式存在。,单糖(monosaccharide)是指最简单的糖,即在温和条件下不能再分解成更小的单体糖,如葡萄糖、果糖等。按碳原子的数目单糖又可分为三碳(丙)糖、四碳(丁)糖、五碳(戊)糖、六碳(已)糖、七碳(庚)糖等。最简单的单糖是甘油醛和二羟基丙酮。单糖是构成各种糖分子的基本单位。,All but one carbon atom have an alcohol(OH)group attached.The remaining carbon atom has an aldehyde or ketone group at
7、tached.Trioses:(e.g.glyceraldehydes),intermediates in respiration and photosynthesis.Tetroses:rare.Pentoses:(e.g.ribose),used in the synthesis of nucleic acids(RNA and DNA),co-enzymes(NAD,NADP,FAD)and ATP.Hexoses:(e.g.glucose,fructose),used as a source of energy in respiration and as building blocks
8、 for larger molecules.,重要的己糖包括:葡萄糖、果糖、半乳糖、甘露糖等。,-D-吡喃葡萄糖,-D-吡喃半乳糖,单糖的结构,-D-吡喃甘露糖,-D-呋喃果糖,Ring form:Due to the bond angles between the carbon atoms,it is possible for pentoses and hexoses to form stable ring structures.The carbon atoms are numbered 1 to 5 in pentoses and 1 to 6 in hexoses.Depending o
9、n the orientation of the OH group on carbon 1,the monosaccharide can have either or configurations.,。,-与-的区别在于半缩醛羟基的方位,半缩羟基与 C-6 的 CH2OH 在环的平面同一方为,不在平面同一方为。,These are formed when two monosaccharides are condensed together.One monosaccharide loses an H atom from carbon atom number 1 and the other los
10、es an OH group from carbon 4 to form the bond.The reaction,which is called a condensation reaction,involves the loss of water(H2O)and the formation of an 1,4-glycosidic bond.Depending on the monosaccharides used,this can be an-1,4-glycosidic bond or a-1,4-glycosidic bond.,Disaccharide,麦芽糖,-葡萄糖(14)葡萄
11、糖苷,寡糖(二糖),maltose is the first product of starch digestion and is further broken down to glucose before absorption in the human gut.,蔗 糖,-葡萄糖(12)-果糖苷,Sucrose is used in many plants for transporting food reserves,often from the leaves to other parts of the plant.,乳 糖,乳糖(半乳糖-1,4-葡萄糖),Lactose is the su
12、gar found in the milk of mammals,(1).淀粉(分为直链淀粉和支链淀粉)直链淀粉分子量约1万-200万,250-260个葡萄糖分子,以(14)糖苷键聚合而成。呈螺旋结构,遇碘显紫蓝色。支链淀粉中除了(14)糖苷键构成糖链以外,在支点处存在(16)糖苷键,分子量较高。遇碘显紫红色。,多 糖,淀粉是白色无定形粉末,由直链淀粉(占1030%)和支链淀粉(占7090%)组成。直链淀粉能溶于热水而不呈糊状,支链淀粉不溶于水,热水与之作用则膨胀而成糊状。溶于水的直链淀粉呈弯曲形式,并借分子内氢键卷曲成螺旋状。这时加入碘酒,其中碘分子便钻入螺旋当中空隙,并借助范得华力与直链淀
13、粉联系在一起,从而形成络合物。这种络合物能比较均匀地吸收除蓝光以外的其它可见光(波长范围为400750nm),从而使淀粉变为深蓝色。,淀 粉,a-1,4-糖苷键,a-1,6-糖苷键,(2)纤维素由葡萄糖以(14)糖苷键连接而成的直链,不溶于水。(3)几丁质(壳多糖)N-乙酰-D-葡萄糖胺,以(14)糖苷键缩合而成的线性均一多糖。,几丁质,多糖和寡聚糖的酶促降解,多糖和寡聚糖只有分解成小分子后才能被吸收利用,称为糖化。,淀粉分解有两条途径:,水解 产生葡萄糖,磷酸解 产生磷酸葡萄糖,以磷酸代替水使淀粉分解形成1-磷酸葡萄糖的过程称淀粉的磷酸解,它是细胞内多糖的主要降解方式。,a-淀粉酶:(a-1
14、,4-葡聚糖水解酶),可水解a-1,4-糖苷键,所以又称为内切淀粉酶。该酶对非还原末端的5个葡萄糖基不发生作用,Ca2+需要。,(1)淀粉酶:(amylase),参与淀粉水解的酶主要有三种:淀粉酶、脱支酶、麦芽糖酶,-淀粉酶:也水解a-1,4-糖苷键,但须从非还原末端开始切,每次切下两个葡萄糖基。又称为外切淀粉酶。,(2)脱支酶(R-酶):(a-1,6-葡萄糖苷酶 Glucosidase),水解a-1,6-糖苷键,但只能作用于外围的这种键,而不能水解内部的分支。,植物体内的麦芽糖酶通常与淀粉酶同时存在,并配合使用,从而使淀粉彻底水解成葡萄糖。,(3)麦芽糖酶:maltase,Hydrolysi
15、s of glycogen and starch by-amylase and-amylase,小肠中各种糖类水解酶的作用,麦芽糖,2 葡萄糖,麦芽糖酶,蔗 糖,葡萄糖+果糖,蔗 糖 酶,乳 糖,葡萄糖+半乳糖,乳糖酶,线形寡糖,-葡萄糖苷酶,葡萄糖,异麦芽糖、-极限糊精,糊精酶、脱支酶,葡萄糖,Storage,Pentose phosphate pathway,Glycolysis,Glycogen,Starch,Sucrose,Pyruvate,Ribose 5-phosphate,葡萄糖的主要代谢途径,葡萄糖,丙酮酸,乳酸,乙醇,乙酰 CoA,6-磷酸葡萄糖,磷酸戊糖途径,糖酵解,(有氧
16、),(无氧),(有氧或无氧),糖异生,葡萄糖的分解代谢,生物体内葡萄糖(糖原)的分解主要有三条途径:,无O2情况下,葡萄糖(G)丙酮酸(Pyr)乳酸(Lac)有O2情况下,G CO2+H2O(经三羧酸循环)有O2情况下,G CO2+H2O(经磷酸戊糖途径),二、糖酵解(glycolysis),1、化学历程和催化酶类2、化学计量和生物学意义,糖酵解是将葡萄糖降解为丙酮酸并伴随着ATP生成的一系列反应,是生物体内普遍存在的葡萄糖降解的途径。该途径也称作Embden-Meyethof途径,以纪念Embden和Mayerholf。,糖酵解是最早阐明的酶促反应系统,所有生物体共同经历的葡萄糖分解代谢前期
17、途径,也是有些生物在供氧不足的条件下为机体提供能量,供应急需要。,Glycolysis,Glycolysis is an almost universal central pathway of glucose catabolism,the pathway with the largest flux of carbon in most cells.In some mammalian tissues(erythrocytes 红细胞,renal medulla,brain,sperm),the glycolytic breakdown of glucose is the sole source o
18、f metabolic energy.Some of the starch-storing tissues,like potato tubers,and some aquatic plants derive most of their energy from glycolysis.Many anaerobic microorganisms are entirely dependent on glycolysis.,The Development of Biochemistry and the Delineation of Glycolysis Went Hand by Hand,1854-18
19、64 Louis Paster“microorganism”and“ferment”1897,Edward and Hans Buchner(Germany),accidental observation:sucrose(as a preservative)was rapidly fermented into alcohol by cell-free yeast extract.No live yeast!But low activity.Glucose Alcohol+CO2The accepted view that fermentation is inextricably tied to
20、 living cells(i.e.,the vitalistic dogma)was shaken and Biochemistry was born:Metabolism became chemistry!1900s,(Arthur Harden and William Young)Pi was needed for yeast juice to ferment glucose,a hexose diphosphate(fructose 1,6-bisphosphate)was isolated.then Fructose-6-P and Glucose-6-P was isolated.
21、,Louis Pasteur,Louis Pasteur was born in 1822 France.His discovery that most infectious diseases are caused by germs,known as the germ theory of disease,is one of the most important in medical history.His work became the foundation for the science of microbiology,and a cornerstone of modern medicine
22、.,Each discovery in the body of Pasteurs work represents a link in an uninterrupted chain,beginning with molecular asymmetry and ending with his rabies prophylaxis,by way of his research in fermentation,silkworm,wine and beer diseases,asepsis and vaccines.,In 1847 at the age of 26,Pasteur did his fi
23、rst work on molecular asymmetry.He formulated a fundamental law:asymmetry differentiates the organic world from the mineral world.In other words,asymmetric molecules are always the product of life forces.His work became the basis of a new science-stereochemistry.He soon demonstrated that each sort o
24、f fermentation is linked to the existence of a specific microorganism or ferment-a living being that one can study by cultivation in an appropriate,sterile medium.This insight is the basis of microbiology.he discovered the existence of life without oxygen:“Fermentation is the consequence of life wit
25、hout air”.The discovery of anaerobic life paved the way for the study of germs that cause septicemia(败血症)and gangrene(坏疽),among other infections.Thanks to Pasteur,it became possible to devise techniques to kill microbes and to control contamination.each disease is caused by a specific microbe and th
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