GRE考试作文备考资料.doc

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1、GRE考试作文备考资料 给大家整理了GRE考试作文备考资料，快来一起学习吧。下面就和大家分享，来欣赏一下吧。GRE考试作文备考资料内在驱动和外在刺激Drives and desires can be described as a deficiency or need that activates behavior that is aimed at a goal or an incentive. These are thought to originate within the individual and may not require external stimuli to encourag

2、e the behavior. Basic drives could be sparked by deficiencies such as hunger, which motivates a person to seek food; whereas more subtle drives might be the desire for praise and approval, which motivates a person to behave in a manner pleasing to others.By contrast, the role of extrinsic rewards an

3、d stimuli can be seen in the example of training animals by giving them treats when they perform a trick correctly. The treat motivates the animals to perform the trick consistently, even later when the treat is removed from the process.内在动机与内在驱动学生的三大特征Intrinsic motivation is the drive for which peo

4、ple engage in an activity, without obvious external incentives, such as a hobby. Intrinsic motivation has been studied by educational psychologists since the 1970s, and numerous studies have found it to be associated with high educational achievement and enjoyment by students.It is thought that stud

5、ents are more likely to be intrinsically motivated if they:1. Attribute their educational results to internal factors that they can control (e.g. the amount of effort they put in).2. Believe they can be effective agents in reaching desired goals (i.e. the results are not determined by dumb luck).3.

6、Are interested in mastering a topic, rather than just rote-learning to achieve good grades.情感对行为的影响Human emotion has a significant influence on, or can even be said to control, human behavior, though historically many cultures and philosophers have for various reasons discouraged allowing this influ

7、ence to go unchecked.In modern scientific thought, certain refined emotions are considered to be a complex neural trait of many domesticated and a few non-domesticated mammals. These were commonly developed in reaction to superior survival mechanisms and intelligent interaction with each other and t

8、heenvironment; as such, refined emotion is not in all cases as discrete and separate from natural neural function as was once assumed. Still, when humans function in civilized tandem, it has been noted that uninhibited acting on extreme emotion can lead to social disorder and crime.GRE考试作文备考资料行动理论Ac

9、tion theory concerned with theories about the processes causing intentional (willful) human bodily movements of more or less complex kind.Basic action theory typically describes action as behavior caused by an agent in a particular situation. The agent?s desires and beliefs (e.g. my wanting a glass

10、of water and believing the clear liquid in the cup in front of me is water) lead to bodily behavior (e.g. reaching over for the glass). In the simple theory, the desire and belief jointly cause the action. We should take the concept of intention as basic and not analyzable into beliefs and desires.行

11、为的回报和强化A reward, tangible or intangible, is presented after the occurrence of an action (i.e. behavior) with the intent to cause the behavior to occur again. This is done by associating positive meaning to the behavior. Studies show that if the person receives the reward immediately, the effect woul

12、d be greater, and decreases as duration lengthens. Repetitive action-reward combination can cause the action to become habit.Rewards can also be organized as extrinsic or intrinsic. Extrinsic rewards are external to the person; for example, praise or money. Intrinsic rewards are internal to the pers

13、on; for example, satisfaction or accomplishment.Some authors distinguish between two forms of intrinsic motivation: one based on enjoyment, the other on obligation. In this context, obligation refers to motivation based on what an individual thinks ought to be done. For instance, a feeling of respon

14、sibility for a mission may lead to helping others beyond what is easily observable, rewarded, or fun.A reinforcer is different from reward, in that reinforcement is intended to create a measured increase in the rate of a desirable behavior following the addition of something to the environment.选择的定义

15、Are we free to make our own choices? To answer the question, we must first cut the fat off the widely used definition of choice. Defining choice in this situation can be a difficult task. A popular definition of choice could be a mental process through which an individual weighs the consequences of

16、their actions to create an ideal image of their preference to the outcome of their actions. But, when you look at this definition, you see that it suggests that someone who fails to carefully analyze their actions doesn?t actually make choices. Can we assume by this definition that choices are free?

17、 We can say yes, because according to this definition, if we do carefully analyze our actions, we create the outcome that we choose.GRE考试作文备考资选择的自由性Some people may say choice is not free. They may say that if we do not reflect carefully on our actions, we are not taking responsibility for them, leav

18、ing the cause of the action to some other force. When looking at the word responsibility in the one side of the argument, one may still draw up a few questions that need to be explained. If we are ignorant of our own responsibility in taking a course of action, how are we to know that we are not ref

19、lecting carefully on our actions? What are the standards of responsibility when reflecting on our actions? What if we do something that we do not know is wrong? To answer these criticisms, ignorance of our actions is natural and cannot affect our ability to rationalize to the best of our ability. In

20、 a given situation where it is impossible to know what is best, we have the ability to do what we think is best in that given situation. Assuming that an individual has the power to think about and carefully consider choices, they do have a free will within them that they can bring out in any situat

21、ion, even if the person has no knowledge of what to do in that certain situation.选择理论的十大公理The Ten Axioms of Choice Theory：1. The only person whose behavior we can control is our own.2. All we can give another person is information.3. All long-lasting psychological problems are relationship problems.

22、4. The problem relationship is always part of our present life.5. What happened in the past has everything to do with what we are today, but we can only satisfy our basic needs right now and plan to continue satisfying them in the future.6. We can only satisfy our needs by satisfying the pictures in

23、 our dream.7. All we do is to behave.8. All behavior is Total Behavior and is made up of four components: acting, thinking, feeling and physiology.9. All Total Behavior is chosen, but we only have direct control over the acting and thinking components. We can only control our feeling and physiology

24、indirectly through how we choose to act and think.10. All total behavior is designated by verbs and named by the part that is the most recognizable.弗洛伊德观点： 影响决策的三大要素Sigmund Freud proposes three aspects of our personality structure that directly effects our decisions. The elements that Sigmund Freud

25、talks about are the Id, Ego, and Super Ego. These three elements play an important role in our decisions and support the view of not having free will.The Id is the source of our basic drives and all of our psychological energy. Sigmund Freud also states that we all are born with this element. The Id

26、 is also refereed to the pleasure principle, which also represents self-gratification. The Id has two basic drivessex and aggression. The Id is the part of us that is seeking pleasure through the immediate satisfaction of its needs. In reference to the Id, it is always trying to satisfy every impuls

27、e whenever and wherever, it knows no limits.The second element of our personality is the ego; Freud relates this as the reality principle. The ego is the practical side of our personality; it is aware of what?s possible and impossible and is able to accept limits and to act in a practical way. The e

28、go?s main purpose is to figure out appropriate ways to satisfy the id?s desire.In a sense, the ego is like congress and the id the president. The president can not take major actions without the approval of congress. In short, the id supplies the power and the ego suppliesthe control. The reaction of the two acts as a driving force in which our decisions are made, thus eliminating free will.料GRE考试作文备考资料