《语言学教程》第5章语义学.ppt
《《语言学教程》第5章语义学.ppt》由会员分享,可在线阅读,更多相关《《语言学教程》第5章语义学.ppt(84页珍藏版)》请在三一办公上搜索。
1、第 5-7 讲第 5 章 语义学(Meaning/Semantics),语言中的层次(Stratification),基本概念What is Semantics?The branch of linguistics concerning the study of meaning is called Semantics.More specifically,semantics is the study of the meaning of linguistic units,words and sentences in particular.,5.1 Meaning of“MEANING”“意义”的意义
2、,研究意义的第一个问题就是如何定义“意义”这个研究对象。Ogden和Richards在The Meaning of Meaning(1923)一书中列出了“意义”这个词的16个大类,22个小类的含义,这加深了人们对该词的理解。Geoffrey Leech 在Semantics(1974)一书中,提出了7种意义:见下图,5.2 The Referential Theory 指称理论,基本概念The theory of meaning which relates the meaning of a word to the thing it refers to,or stands for,is kno
3、wn as the Referential Theory.指称理论:把一个词的意义跟它所指称或代表的事物联系起来的意义理论。,通过指明某个词所代表或指称的事物来解释该词的意义,一般是可能的。这种意义理论在解释专有名词(proper noun)或限定性名词短语(definite noun phrase)时尤其有效。例如,当我们说“The most influential linguist Noam Chomsky teaches at MIT.”时,我们是用“The most influential linguist”和“Noam Chomsky”来指称一个具体的人,而用“MIT”来指称一所具体
4、的高等教育机构。,指称理论的缺陷,指称理论的一个问题是,当我们指着实物,即一张具体的、实实在在的书桌来解释什么是desk时,我们并不是说书桌必须具有此时此地这张书桌所具有的尺寸、形状、颜色和材料。我们只是把这种书桌当做一个实例,即代表某种更普遍的东西的一个实例。也就是说,在我们肉眼所见的实物之外还存在着某种东西。这种东西是抽象的,没有物质存在,只能通过我们的思维来感知。这种抽象之物就是一般所说的“概念”(CONCEPT)。,(在指称理论的基础上)Ogden和Richards在The Meaning of Meaning一书中提出了“语义三角理论”(the semantic triangle),
5、明确使用了“概念”这一术语。他们认为,词和所指事物之间没有直接的关系。它们是以概念为中介的。这种关系可以用如下图表示:图表见本书P 96,如果把这种观点与上一节提到的解释词义的四种方式相联系,我们会发现第一种,即指着所指的事物来解释词义的方式,符合那种认为词与所指事物之间存在着直接关系的理论;而上一节提到的第二种释义方式符合本节所讲的“间接关系论”。当我们说 desk 是a piece of furniture with a flat top and four legs,at which one reads and writes时,我们实际上是借助了书桌的概念,或者说是概括了书桌的主要特征和基
6、本属性。而第三、四种释义方式甚至更为间接,因为引入了另一个词table 或“书桌”的概念。,术语注解Denotation外延 shows the relation between a word and whatever object it is used to refer to,e.g.bull denotes(指称)a class of animals;brown denotes a property of individuals or objects.Reference指称 shows the relation between a word and the thing it denotes
7、,or refers to.Connotation内涵 means the properties of the entity that a word denotes.词语所指称的实体所具有的性质。,G.Leech用“涵义”(“SENSE”)这个术语作为他所提出的“概念意义”的简称。这样做是有道理的,因为作为一个专业术语,“涵义”可以像哲学中的“内涵”那样使用。它可以指一个实体所具有的属性。在这一点上,“涵义”(sense)和“概念”(concept)是等价的。当把desk定义为a piece of furniture with a flat top and four legs,at which
8、 one reads and writes时,这可以看作desk的涵义。所以,“涵义”和“指称”的区别就类似于“内涵”和“外延”的区别。前者指一个实体的抽,象属性,而后者是指具有这些属性的具体实体。换句话说,Leech 所说的概念意义包括两个方面:涵义和指称。然而,“涵义”和“指称”之间还有其他不同。某种程度上,我们可以说每个词都有涵义,即概念内容,否则我们就无法使用或理解这个词。但是,并不是每个词都有指称。语法词but,if,and 并不指称任何实物。“上帝”、“鬼魂”、“龙”等所指的只是想象中的事物,现实中并不存在。,而且,用词的所指事物来解释词很不方便。因为词所指的对象并不总在说话人的身
9、边。就算是在身边,也需要听者花时间来辨认其主要特征。例如,一个人第一次见到电脑时,可能会误认为显示器是其主要部件,认为电脑就像电视机一样。因此,有人提出应该根据涵义而非指称来研究意义。注:句是 5.2 的最终结论:要将对意义的研究限制在语言的范围内,而不诉诸于语言之外的世界。这是结构主义语言学的基本立场。,5.3 Sense Relations 涵义关系,中文学名:智人拉丁学名:homo sapiens界:动物界门:脊索动物门纲:哺乳纲目:灵长目亚目:人猿亚目科:人科属:人属种:智人分布区域:全球几乎所有陆地,中文学名:老虎 拉丁学名:tiger 二名法:老虎 界:动物界门:脊索动物亚门:脊椎
10、动物纲:哺乳动物亚纲:兽 目:食肉 亚目:猫型 科:猫科亚种:8个 分布区域:亚欧非美,Words are in different sense relations with each other.词与词之间通过不同的涵义关系联系在一起。,The sense of a word may be seen as the network of its sense relations with others.In other words,sense may be defined as the semantic relations between one word and another,or more
11、 generally between one linguistic unit and another.It is concerned with the intra-linguistic relations.一个词的涵义可以看作是由它和其他词之间的涵义关系所构成的网络。也就是说,涵义可以定义为词之间的语义关系;更概括地说,是语言单位之间的语义关系。涵义关注的是语言内的关系。,Reference is concerned with the relation between a word and the thing it refers to,or more generally between a l
12、inguistic unit and a non-linguistic entity it refers to.It is concerned with the extra-linguistic relations.指称关注的是词和所指事物之间的关系;更广泛地说,是语言单位和它所指称的非语言实体之间的关系。指称关注的是语言外的关系。,There are generally three kinds of sense relations recognized,namely,一般来说,公认的涵义关系有三种sameness relation 相同关系oppositeness relation 对立关系
13、inclusiveness relation.内包关系结构主义语义学(structural semantics),5.3.1 Synonymy同义关系定义:Synonymy is the technical name for the sameness relation in meaning.English is said to be rich in synonyms.Its vocabulary has two main sources:Anglo-Saxon and Latin.There are many pairs of words of these two sources which
14、mean the same,e.g.buy and purchase,world and universe,brotherly and fraternal.,But total synonymy is rare.The so-called synonyms are all context dependent.They all differ in one way or another.They may differ in style文体.They may differ in connotations蕴含意义.Thirdly,there are dialectal differences方言差异.
15、注:可参见陈宏薇著新编汉英翻译教程第49页,5.3.2 Antonymy反义关系 Antonymy is the technical name for the oppositeness relation in meaning.There are three main sub-types:gradable antonymy(等级反义关系)complementary antonymy(互补反义关系)converse antonymy(反向反义关系).,(1)Gradable antonymy等级反义关系 This is the commonest type of antonymy.When we
16、say two words are antonyms,we usually mean pairs of words like good:bad,long:short,big:small.As the examples show,they are mainly adjectives.And they have three characteristics.,First,they are gradable.That is,the members of a pair differ in terms of degree.The denial of one is not necessarily the a
17、ssertion of the other.They can be modified by“very”.And they may have comparative and superlative degrees.Sometimes the intermediate degrees may be lexicalized.They may be expressed by separate words rather than by adding modifiers.首先,等级反义词是分等级的。也就是说,每对等级反义词的成员在程度上有差异。对一方的否定未必就是对另一方的肯定。它们可以受到“very(很
18、)”修饰。可能有比较级和最高级。有时,居间的程度可能被词汇化。人们可以用不同的词来表达,而不是在给原级填加修饰语。,Second,antonyms of this kind are graded against different norms.There is no absolute criterion by which we may say something is good or bad,long or short,big or small.The criterion varies with the object described.第二,这种类型的反义词分等级时依据不同的标准。没有绝对的
19、标准可用来判断某物是好还是坏、是长还是短、是大还是小。标准随描写对象而改变。Third,one member of a pair,usually the term for the higher degree,serves as the cover term.第三,在这样的一对反义词中,那个表示较高程度的单词通常可以用作覆盖整个量级的术语。,Technically,the cover term is called“unmarked”,i.e.usual;and the covered term“marked”,or unusual.That means,in general,it is the
20、cover term that is more often used.If the covered term is used,then it suggests that there is something odd,unusual here.从专业的角度看,覆盖词是“无标记的”,即一般的、常用的;被覆盖的词则是“有标记的”,即不同寻常的、很少用的。这意味着,覆盖词总体上更常用。如果使用了被覆盖的词,那就是表示有某种特殊的、不一般的情况发生。这里是用标记理论阐述覆盖词与被覆盖词,(2)Complementary Antonymy互补反义关系In contrast to the first typ
21、e,the members of a pair in this type are complementary to each other.That is,they divide up the whole of a semantic field completely.Not only the assertion of one means the denial of the other,the denial of one also means the assertion of the other.与等级反义关系不同,互补反义关系中的成员彼此互补。它们把一个语义领域完全分开。对一方的肯定意味着对另一
22、方的否定,对一方的否定也意味着对另一方的肯定。,There is no intermediate ground between the two.两者之间没有中间地带。It is a question of two term choice:yes or no;not a multiple choice,a choice between more or less.这是一个二选一,而非多选一的问题。,The adjectives in this type cannot be modified by“very”.这种类型的形容词不能受“very(很)”修饰。And they do not have c
23、omparative or superlative degrees either.它们也没有比较级和最高级形式。,互补反义与等级反义之间的不同To some extent,this difference between the gradable and the complementary can be compared to the traditional logical distinction between the contrary and the contradictory.In logic,a proposition is the contrary of another if both
24、 cannot be true,though they may both be false.And a proposition is the contradictory of another if it is impossible for both to be true,or false.在某种程度上,等级和互补两种反义关系之间的不同类似于传统逻辑学中对反对命题和矛盾命题的区分。逻辑上,如果两个命题不能同时为真,但是可以同时为假,则一个是另一个的反对命题。如果两个命题既不能同时为真,也不能同时为假,则一个是另一个的矛盾命题。,Secondly,the norm in this type is
25、absolute.It does not vary with the thing a word is applied to.The same norm is used for all the things it is applicable to.第二,互补反义关系所依据的标准是绝对的。不会随着词所指事物的不同而改变。它所适用的所有事物都遵循同一标准。Thirdly,there is no cover term for the two members of a pair.No adjective in this type can be modified by how.This is relate
- 配套讲稿:
如PPT文件的首页显示word图标,表示该PPT已包含配套word讲稿。双击word图标可打开word文档。
- 特殊限制:
部分文档作品中含有的国旗、国徽等图片,仅作为作品整体效果示例展示,禁止商用。设计者仅对作品中独创性部分享有著作权。
- 关 键 词:
- 语言学教程 语言学 教程 语义学
链接地址:https://www.31ppt.com/p-5062787.html