《语言学教程》第四章课件.ppt
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1、1,Chapter FourFrom Word to Text,2,Syntax is the study of the rules governing the ways different constituents are combined to form sentences in a language,or the study of the interrelationships between elements in sentence structures.,3,What are the three basic syntactic relations?,4,Syntactic relati
2、ons can be analysed into three kinds:relations of positionrelations of substitutabilityrelations of co-occurrence,1.Syntactic relations,syntactic relations,5,What is positional relation?What are the other names for it?What happens if the word order is changed?,6,1.1 Relations of Position,For languag
3、e to fulfill its communicative function,it must have a way to mark the grammatical roles of the various phrases that can occur in a clause.The boy kicked the ball NP1 NP2 Subject Object,7,Positional relation,or WORD ORDER,refers to the sequential arrangement of words in a language.If the words in a
4、sentence fail to occur in a fixed order required by the convention of a language,one tends to produce an utterance either ungrammatical or nonsensical at all.For example,8,The boy kicked the ball*Boy the ball kicked the*The ball kicked the boyThe teacher saw the studentsThe students saw the teacher,
5、9,Positional relations are a manifestation of one aspect of Syntagmatic Relations(组合关系)observed by F.de Saussure.They are also called Horizontal Relations or simply Chain Relations.,10,Word order is among the three basic ways(word order,genetic and areal来自一个地区的 classifications)to classify languages
6、in the world:SVO,VSO,SOV,OVS,OSV,and VOS.English belongs to SVO type,though this does not mean that SVO is the only possible word order.,11,What is relations of substitutability?What are the other names?,12,1.2 Relation of Substitutability,The Relation of Substitutability refers to classes or sets o
7、f words substitutable for each other grammatically in sentences with the same structure.The_ smiles.man boy girl,13,It also refers to groups of more than one word which may be jointly substitutable grammatically for a single word of a particular set.strong manThe tallest boy smiles.pretty girl yeste
8、rday.He went therelast week.the day before.,14,This is also called Associative Relations by Saussure,and Paradigmatic聚合 Relations by Hjemslev.To make it more understandable,they are called Vertical Relations or Choice Relations.,15,What is the relation of co-occurrence?Is the relation syntagmatic or
9、 paradigmatic?,16,1.3 Relation of Co-occurrence,It means that words of different sets of clauses may permit,or require,the occurrence of a word of another set or class to form a sentence or a particular part of a sentence.For instance,a nominal phrase can be preceded by a determiner and adjective(s)
10、and followed by a verbal phrase.,17,Relations of co-occurrence partly belong to syntagmatic relations,partly to paradigmatic relations.,18,2.Grammatical construction and its constituents,2.1 Grammatical Construction Any syntactic string of words ranging from sentences over phrasal structures to cert
11、ain complex lexemes.an appleate an appleMary ate an apple,19,2.2 Constituents and Phrase Structure,Constituent is a part of a larger linguistic unit.Several constituents together form a construction:the girl(NP)ate the apple(VP)the girl ate the apple(S),20,Immediate Constituent直接成分 Analysis(IC Analy
12、sis),The girl ate the apple,21,Phrase StructureTree diagram,S NP VPDet N V NP Det NThe girl ate the apple,22,23,Bracketing,Bracketing is not as common in use,but it is an economic notation in representing the constituent/phrase structure of a grammatical unit.(The)(girl)(ate)(the)(apple)SNPDet TheN
13、girlVPV ateNPDet theN apple,24,Practise,Use the tree diagram to analyse the following sentences:The boy was crying.He bought an old car with his first pay cheque.,25,Whats the difference between endocentric and exocentric constructions?What are their respective syntactic constructions?,26,2.3 Endoce
14、ntric and Exocentric Constructions,Endocentric construction is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent to that of one or more of its constituents,i.e.,a word or a group of words,which serves as a definable centre or head.Usually noun phrases,verb phrases and adjective phrases belong to end
15、ocentric types because the constituent items are subordinate to the Head.,27,28,Exocentric construction refers to a group of syntactically related words where none of the words is functionally equivalent to the group as a whole,that is,there is no definable“Centre”or“Head”inside the group,usually in
16、cludingthe basic sentence,the prepositional phrase,the predicate(verb+object)construction,and the connective(be+complement)construction.,29,The boy smiled.(Neither constituent can substitute for the sentence structure as a whole.)He hid behind the door.(Neither constituent can function as an adverbi
17、al.)He kicked the ball.(Neither constituent stands for the verb-object sequence.)John seemed angry.(After division,the connective construction no longer exists.),30,two main types of endocentric constructions,What are the characteristics of coordinations?What are the characteristics of subordination
18、s?What are their respective places in recursiveness of languages?,31,2.4 Coordination and Subordination,Endocentric constructions fall into two main types,depending on the relation between constituents:,CoordinationSubordination,32,Coordination,Coordination is a common syntactic pattern in English a
19、nd other languages formed by grouping together two or more categories of the same type with the help of a conjunction such as and,but and or.These two or more words or phrases or clauses have equivalent syntactic status,each of the separate constituents can stand for the original construction functi
20、onally.,33,Coordination of NPs:NP the lady or NP the tigerCoordination of VPs:VP go to the library and VP read a book Coordination of PPs:PP down the stairs and PP out the door Coordination of APs:AP quite expensive and AP very beautifulCoordination of Ss:S John loves Mary and S Mary loves John too.
21、,34,Subordination,Subordination refers to the process or result of linking linguistic units so that they have different syntactic status,one being dependent upon the other,and usually a constituent of the other.The subordinate constituents are words which modify the head.Consequently,they can be cal
22、led modifiers.,35,two dogs Head(My brother)can drink(wine).HeadSwimming in the lake(is fun).Head(The pepper was)hot beyond endurance.Head,36,Subordinate clauses,Clauses can be used as subordinate constituents.There are three basic types of subordinate clauses:complement clausesadjunct(or adverbial)c
23、lausesrelative clauses,37,John believes that the airplane was invented by an Irishman.(complement clause)Elizabeth opened her presents before John finished his dinner.(adverbial clause)The woman that I love is moving to the south.(relative clause),subordinate clause,38,What are the basic functional
24、terms in syntax?What is a subject?What is a predicate?What is a predicator?What is an object?,39,3.Syntactic Function,The syntactic function shows the relationship between a linguistic form and other parts of the linguistic pattern in which it is used.Names of functions are expressed in terms of sub
25、jects,objects,predicators,modifiers,complements,etc.,40,3.1 Subject,In some languages,subject refers to one of the nouns in the nominative case.The typical example can be found in Latin,where subject is always in nominative case,such as pater and filius in the following examples.pater filium amat(th
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