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1、Trade liberalization and patterns of strategicadjustment in the US textiles and clothing industryBelay SeyoumU.S.A.International Business Review，Issue 16 ,2007Belay SeyoumNova Southeastern University, 3301 College Avenue, Ft. Lauderdale, FL 33314, USAReceived 2 December 2005; received in revised for

2、m 17 April 2006, 11 October 2006, 23 November 2006; accepted13 December 2006The overall environment facing the US TC industry will be one of rapidly changing market conditions and technological innovation. With the phase out of quotas and growing number of trade agreements, the US TC industry is bei

3、ng exposed to intense competition in export and domestic markets. This is likely to lead domestic industries/labor to demand intervention by national governments to mitigate the adverse impact of trade liberalization (Standbury & Vertinksy, 2004).In spite of the substantial job losses, the US TC ind

4、ustry remains technologically advanced partly due to increased productivity resulting from advances in technology and design capabilities. Textile production is capital intensive and modern technology is essential to meet the increasing for high-quality products. Over the last few years, US textiles

5、 and apparel firms have substantially increased their investment to maintain modern manufacturing facilities as well as improve production and marketing capabilities in order to maximize their inherent advantages to market proximity. In apparel, low skill production jobs have moved to low-cost locat

6、ions offshore while the more skilled ones have been retained. To successfully adapt to the new environment, US TC industries need to capitalize on their sources of competitive advantage. They need to develop a more flexible operational arrangement, meet high standards in product innovation and gener

7、ally develop a more change-seeking business culture (Kilduff, 2005).An important survival tool for US TC firms is to expand their potential market by offering new product designs and product categories. Manufacturers must try to bring a steady stream of products to market that are in line with the t

8、aste, preferences of the consumer. They can also expand their market potential by offering new product categories. Two of the fastest growing apparel segments in the US, for example, have been the womens plus and mens big and tall segments (Driscoll, 2004). Plus-size apparel marketing was estimated

9、at $47 billion in 2005 accounting for 20% of total apparel market. It is important to identify the firms target customers and assess whether the firm is successfully addressing their needs.US TC firms should target a narrow segment of the market that provides the best opportunity for success. In tex

10、tiles, the focus should be on a few specialized segments such as carpets, nonwovens and technical textiles. Similarly, apparel producers should increase their focus on core products, reduce vertical integration to shed overhead costs, and establish alliances with other firms to consolidate resources

11、 and increase market share.Finally, in view of rising incomes and high growth rates in many developing countries such as China, Brazil, and India, there are potential export market opportunities for US textile and apparel products. US export interests may be served by seeking improved access to the

12、retail distribution systems of developing countries. US textile firms should also be able to use Mexico to export to the European Union and other countries, taking advantage of the Mexico-EU trade agreement. Since the conclusion of NAFTA, a number of Asian and European firms have produced certain pr

13、oducts in Mexico in order to export to the US market.This paper suggests a demand pull model as a basis for developing a network structure in the clothing industry. In a demand pull model, consumer demand is the driver of sales unlike the supply push model whereby the manufacturer pushes goods to th

14、e retailer regardless of consumer demand.Retail companies have become powerful due to their sufficient capital and marketing expertise to build loyalty among consumers. They are the lead firm in view of their central role in the organizational network. The lead clothing retailer integrates industria

15、l capabilities such as sourcing of textiles, design, product branding and its relations with consumers enables it to keep abreast of fashion consumption trends.The lead firm conveys its requirements to these changing trends (changes in style, material requirements) to its suppliers or subcontractors

16、 (Table 7). It also provides assistance with the purchasing of capital equipment and technology necessary to produce apparel in accordance with market demand. The fragmented webs of suppliers and subcontractors are bound together through information technology, online data sharing, joint product dev

17、elopment, and collaborative forecasting, planning and replenishment activities. Retailers will hold less inventory as shipments become smaller and more frequent since point of sale data is directly transmitted to the manufacturer/supplier who will produce and ship garments as it is needed. This mode

18、l shows the role of the retailer as an intermediary integrating the functions of design, textile sourcing, branding and as facilitator of apparel production through a web of suppliers/subcontractors. Such restructuring through technological improvements and information technology is one means of suc

19、ceeding in an increasingly competitive environment. The horizontally structured, mass production methods no longer ensure future competitiveness.The lions share of the benefits from quota elimination is expected to accrue to China. Its low labor cost, high productivity, range and flexibility of serv

20、ices as well as efficient supplier networks will make China the supplier of choice. About 87% of apparel executives that participated in a cotton sourcing summit in Miami in February 2004, agreed that China will soon account for 5090% of all apparel sold in the US market (National Labor Committee, 2

21、004). This means rationalization of production and a massive consolidation of vendors. Other winners are likely to include India and Pakistan in narrow segments of the TC industry. The elimination of quotas is also likely to lead to lower prices for consumers in view of the absence of quota costs wh

22、ich is often a significant part of the cost of TC sold in the US market. Well-known brands may still hold market value since they are not subject to retail price deflation. It is important for TC firms to evaluate their internal capabilities such as sourcing, manufacturing, logistics, transportation

23、 etc. in order to develop an action plan for the post-quota world. Exporters from Latin America, Africa and the Caribbean are likely to lose market share to China since they largely compete on price (not quality) and lack the capability to produce high value added products. Even with the introductio

24、n of safeguards on a range of products that are of export interest to these countries, their US market share has declined since the phase out of quotas. With the complete removal of quotas in 2008, it is difficult for these countries to compete on price. Since the US government lifted quotas in 2002

25、 on 29 categories, for example, Chinas market share (in these categories) jumped from just 9% (2002) to 65% (2003) while prices paid by US retailers (for apparel from China) dropped by 48% (National Labor Committee, 2004). In cotton dressing gowns (quotas removed) Chinas share in 2003 jumped from 25

26、% to 39% while that of Caribbean countries fell from 13% to a mere 3%. In the first 12 months after the phase out of quotas, Chinas market share in apparel rose by 59% in value while that of many Central and South American countries showed a sharp decline.What are the implications for TC firms in co

27、untries that are vulnerable to competition from China? First, they should capitalize on their proximity to the US market. Their ability to offer lower transport cost, lower lead times as well as duty free entry to the US market may attract the fashion-oriented segment of the US industry. This will d

28、epend on access to good local transport infrastructure to get goods to market as well as advanced telecommunications systems to link suppliers and customers. Local firms and governments need to collaborate in creating a climate which is conducive to business and to develop infrastructure to attract

29、and retain TC industries that are so vital in generating exports and employment.Secondly, low wages do not necessarily provide a comparative advantage with respect to China. Firms should develop new capabilities in areas in which China does not have a comparative advantage (yarn, and silk non-appare

30、l). This requires, inter alia, investment in modern production methods and development of competitive sources of local raw materials. Even in product areas in which China is expanding its exports, developing country suppliers that enhance their skills, technology, supply chains and marketing capabil

31、ities (through joint ventures, licensing arrangements) faster than China can still maintain their shares to the US market.Thirdly, an important strategic consideration that limits the competitive impact of China is the need on the part of multinationals to diversify their risk portfolios. US manufac

32、turers and retailers are likely to adopt a diversified risk adjusted sourcing strategy that balances cost, speed to market as well as political and economic stability. They may not be prepared to rely on China for critical inputs beyond a certain threshold of risk. Furthermore, Mexico, Central Ameri

33、ca and the Caribbean could be attractive options for US companies in some fashion sensitive segments of the industry where quick response or fast turnaround is important.Finally, existing US rules of origin requirements to qualify for free access to the US market have had unintended consequences. On

34、e of the requirements is that they have to use US yarn and fabric. This has had the effect of making their exports less competitive. The US may have to modify its rules of origin to allow developing countries to import from Asia or other competitive sources without losing their preferential status.美

35、国纺织品和服装产业的贸易自由化和战略调整模式贝蕾塞尤姆美国国际商务评论，第16期,2007年贝蕾塞尤姆诺娃东南大学，学院大道3301，劳德代尔堡，佛罗里达33314，美国2005年12月2日收到稿件；分别于2006年4月17日、2006年10月11日和2006年11月23日收到修改稿件；2006年12月13日正式录用美国纺织品和服装行业面临的是一个市场条件快速变化、科技不断创新的环境。随着配额的取消和越来越多贸易协议的出现，美国的纺织品和服装行业在出口和国内市场上面临着更为激烈的竞争。这可能会导致国内的企业/劳动者向本国政府施加压力要求进行需求的干预，通过这种做法来缓和贸易自由化带来的不利影响

36、。（斯坦德贝瑞和维丁克思，2004）尽管美国国内纺织行业的就业人数大量减少，美国纺织品和服装行业依然保持着技术性的进步，主要是依靠在技术上和设计上的能力取得的进步使得生产率大幅度的提高。纺织品产品是资本密集型的，这种高质量产品需要现代的技术来满足增长的需求。在过去的若干年中，美国的纺织品和服装企业为了达到市场邻近的内在优势的最大化增加了相当大的投资，来保持现代生产的能力和改善生产和营销的能力。在服装方面，低技术含量的生产工作已经被转移到低成本的国家，而高技术含量的生产工作仍然在本国进行。为了能顺利地适应新的环境，美国纺织品和服装行业需要将他们的竞争优势变成资本。他们需要建立起一套更灵活的操作系

37、统来满足生产创新的高标准，另外还要建立起更容易变化寻找的商业文化。（克里度夫，2005）美国纺织品和服装企业的一个重要生存手段就是通过提供新产品的设计和产品目录来扩大他们潜在的市场。生产者必须试着将一个稳定的产品系列引入到与消费者的口味和偏好相一致的市场中去。他们同样能通过提供新的产品目录来扩大他们的潜在市场。比如，在美国增长最快的两个服装部门是女式的加大服装部门和男式的大而高的服装部门。（迪瑞斯科，2004）加大型服装销售在2005年估计达到470亿美元，占整个服装市场的20%。重要的一点是识别企业的目标顾客和评定企业是否能成功的满足他们的需求。美国的纺织品和服装企业应该以一个狭小的提供最好

38、的成功机会的市场部门作为目标。在纺织品方面，重点应该放在一些诸如地毯，非纺织而成的纺织品和技术类的纺织品上。同样，服装生产者应该将他们的注意力更多的集中在核心产品上，将垂直生产费用减少到企业的管理费用，和其他的企业建立联盟来巩固资源和增加市场的份额。最后，鉴于诸如中国、巴西和印度这样的发展中国家收入的增加和高增长率，对于美国纺织品和服装产品有许多潜在的出口市场机会。通过寻找已经改善的发展中国家的零售系统令美国获得出口利益。美国纺织品企业同样能够利用墨西哥和欧盟之间的贸易协定，通过墨西哥将产品出口到欧盟和其他的国家。由于北美自由贸易区协定的存在，为了能出口到美国市场，许多亚洲和欧洲企业已经在墨西

39、哥生产某些产品。本文建立了一个需求推动模型，将其作为发展服装纺织行业的网络框架的基础。在这个需求推动的模型中，消费者的需求是销售的推动力，这个模型不同于供给推动模型，在那个模型中生产者不考虑消费者的需求而将产品提供给零售商。零售公司实力雄厚是由于他们有足够的资金和市场营销知识在客户间树立起信誉度。由于在整个组织框架中他们处于中心地位，所以他们是领导性的企业。这些领头的服装零售商具备整合诸如纺织品来源、设计、产品的品牌和客户之间的联系等产业之间的能力，使得他们能够始终跟随着时尚消费的趋势。领导性的企业将它们的需求传递到这些不断变化的趋势中（造型、原材料需求上的变化），传递到它们的供应商或者转包合

40、同商那里。（图7）。它同样提供资金设备的销售和技术，这些都是使服装生产满足市场需求所必需的。通过信息技术、在线数据的共享、共同产品的发展，合作性的预测、计划和补货活动，各种供应商和转包合同商总是联系在一起。当运输变的越来越小型化、越来越频繁的时候，当销售的数据直接传送到生产和负责运输的服装生产商和供应商那里的时候，零售商将保留少量的库存。这个模型解释了零售商的作用，它是作为一个中间人，起到综合设计、纺织品来源、品牌的功能，而且通过一系列的供应商/转包合同商来作为服装生产的便利者。通过技术改进和信息技术进行的这些重新构建在竞争越来越激烈的环境中是一种不断前进的方式。水平的构建，大量的生产方法不再

41、确保未来的竞争性。配额取消所带来的市场份额的大幅度增长被认为是有利于中国的发展的。中国低廉的劳动力成本，高的生产效率和产量，灵活多变的服务和有效的供应网络将使得中国成为供应商的选择。在参加2004年2月于迈阿密举行的棉花来源会议的服装执行官中，大约有87%的人认为中国在不久以后将占有美国市场所有销售服装的50%90%的份额（国家劳动委员会，2004年）。这意味着中国生产的合理性和拥有大量稳定的买主。在纺织品和服装行业的狭窄部门中，其他受益的国家可能包括印度和巴基斯坦。配额的取消同样可能带给消费者低价，这是由于配额成本的消失，在美国市场上配额的成本是纺织品和服装销售成本中的一个重要组成部分。知名

42、的品牌仍然保持着市场的价值因为它们不会受到零售价格缩水的影响。为了建立一个后配额时代的实施计划，估计纺织品和服装企业的内在能力诸如产品的来源，生产，后勤，运输等对于他们来说是很重要。来自拉丁美洲、非洲和加勒比海的出口商可能会将失去的市场份额白白让给中国，因为他们主要是在价格上展开竞争（而不是在质量上），没有能力去生产高附加值的产品。即使一定的贸易保护对这些国家的部分产品出口有利，但是自从配额取消以来他们在美国市场的份额是下降的。随着2008年配额的完全取消，这些国家很难在价格上进行竞争。举个例子，美国政府在2002年解除了对29类商品的配额限制，中国在美国的市场份额从原来区区的9%（2002年

43、）一下子跃升到65%（2003年），而美国零售商（从中国购买服装的）价格下降了48%（国家劳动委员会，2004年）。在棉制睡衣方面（配额的取消），中国占美国的市场份额在2003年从25%上升到39%，而加勒比海国家的棉制睡衣在美国的市场份额从13%下降到只有仅仅的3%。在配额取消的前12个月，中国服装在美国的市场份额价值上上升了59%，而许多中美和南美国家却是出现明显下降的趋势。对于那些面临中国激烈竞争的国家来说，他们应该怎么办呢？首先，他们应该充分利用与美国在地理条件上邻近的这种优势。这些国家能够提供比较低的运输成本，比较短的交货时间和享受出口美国市场关税豁免的优惠政策，这些都将吸引美国产业

44、中那些以时尚为导向的部门。这将依赖于当地更好的的运输基础结构的获取，这些基础结构能将好的产品送到更好的市场上，同时依赖于更先进通信系统的获得，它们用来连接供应商和客户。当地企业和政府需要在创造性的环境下进行合作，这个环境是通过促进商务和发展基础结构来吸引和保持纺织品和服装行业的，因为纺织品和服装行业在创造出口和就业方面的作用很大。其次，低工资并不意味着中国有相对的比较优势。企业应该在中国没有比较优势的那些领域（纱线、丝、非纺织类方面）挖掘出他们的新潜能。这需要在现代生产方法上进行其他项目的投资，需要在当地原材料来源的竞争性上进行发展。甚至在中国正在扩大出口的那些产品的领域上，发展中国家的供应商

45、也可以比中国更快地提高他们生产的技能、技术水平、供应链和市场营销的能力（通过合资、许可证授权），来保持他们在美国市场上的份额。第三，限制中国竞争作用的一个重要的战略考虑就是扩大对多个国家的需要来分散他们的风险比重。美国的生产者和零售商可能会采取一种分散风险的调整来源国的战略来平衡成本，加速市场、政治、经济上的稳定性。他们不会单单依赖中国提供主要的进口产品，因为这样会超出一定的风险界限。再者，墨西哥、中美洲和加勒比海国家在一些时尚的部门上对美国的公司有着吸引，这些部门对时尚的快速反应变化是非常重要的。最后，现有的美国对原产地规则限制了对美国市场的自由获取，这种规则已经产生了不可预料的结果。其中一个要求是他们不得不使用美国的纱线和纤维。这已经对他们出口竞争压力的减少产生了作用。美国可能不得不修改原产地规则来允许发展中国家从亚洲或者其他竞争性的来源国进口而不会失去他们的有利地位。