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1、 Marketing (From: Sun Kun of Accounting English, 2008.) Marketing is a group of interrelated activities designed to identify consumer needs and to develop,distribute,promote,and price goods and services to satisfy these needs at a profit.Whether an organization is large or small,whether it produces

2、a product or provides a service,its long-range future is linked to successful markting practices. The old saying Build a better mousetrap and the world will beat a path to your dooris not true. They must need the product,know about it,be able to get it when and where they want it,and be able to affo

3、rd it.Marketing provides the means to make the organization successful in the long run.1.The Marketing Concept Marketing was unheard of in the early 1900s. This period can best be described as one where far more people needed consumer goods than companies were able to manufacture.This intense demand

4、 on manufacturing led to organizations dominated by production management. Companies had a production orientation: where the number one priority is to produce a good to keep up with demand. All energies and talents were laced in the production function. Selling a good was incidental; determining con

5、sumer needs was unheard of. As manufacturers increased their production capabilities,the supply of goods available increased and inventories of goods developed. An emphasis on selling occurred. This need to sell led to a sales-dominated company-a sales orientation,whereby the energy of the company i

6、s focused on selling the products produced. The salespersios job:(1)to make the desires of the consumers fitthe products the company manufactures and (2)to convince the consumer to buy. The companys goal:tosend the out full and bring it back empty.As more producers began competing for consumer dolla

7、rs by making such high-demand products as automobiles,vacuum cleaners,and refrigerators,the supply of goods began to exceed the demand. Companies had to find a way to identify consumer demand. Company profits. Companies that are marketing oriented have adopted a philosophy for the firm known as the

8、marketing concept.The marketing concept is a belief that the company should adopt a companywide consumer orientation directed at long-range profitability.It includes the belied that all efforts of the organization should be directed at identifying and satisfyingProduction Orientation Companies were

9、essentially production-oriented from the latter part of the nineteenth century to about 1920. Emphasis was placed on filling the demand for basic commodities. The typical family had little discretionary income and there was little demand for products not associated with filling those basic family re

10、quirements.Demand was usually supplied by the producers perception of what consumers needed. Product design and product line decisions were heavily influenced by manufacturing considerations.Management attention was directed primarily toimproving production methods,increasing output,and lowering cos

11、ts.Sales Orientation The period of sales orientation covered roughly the years from 1920 to 1950.With the exception of the years of the Grat Depression ,this period was characterized by gradually rising discretionary income,emerging demand for products,increasing competition,and the expansion of dis

12、tribution channels. Although product decisions continued to be dominated by what the manufacturing department wanted to make ,the role of sales became increasingly important. With the production department capable of tuning out increasing quantities of goods through mass production techniques,compan

13、y success began to turn on the ability of the sales force to move inventories.Market Orientation Covering the years from about 1950 to 1970 ,this period was characterized by a continuing shift in business emphasis to understanding and reacting to changing markets.The dramatic rise in consumer discre

14、tionary income following World War II created demand for new products and services. The mobility provided by mass ownership of automobiles encouraged the development of suburbs, new shopping patterns, and changes in distribution methods. Markets became more segmented and more complex. Product life c

15、ycles shortened. With these conditions,production people no longer were in a position to determine accurately what would sell. Selling skills were no longer sufficient to overcome the problems created when products were not attuned to a more discriminant market demand. In order to provide a better f

16、it between market demand and company offerings-and in order to provide for better coordination of marketing activities-companies reorganized and assigned increased responsibilities to the marketing department. Marketing took on the role of analyzing markets and interpreting the needs, and manufactur

17、ing departments. More sophisticated aproaches were developed to fulfill the traditional marketing roles of product promotion and the management of distribution channels. The role of marketing in pricing increased.And finally, the marketing department became the focal point for the development of cor

18、porate strategies needed to adjust to market change.Societal Orientation When managements adopted the marketing concept, they could not foresee the environmental problems or the changes in societys values that would raise questions about the market orientation philosophy. In terms of what we now kno

19、w about pollution, the finiteness of raw materials, and the apparent inability of our economic system to eliminate poverty, some people question whether what is good for the individual consumer is always good for society.Increasingly, national policy-and, in turn, business policy-is tempering concer

20、n for the consumer with concern for society as a whole. Thomas A. Murphy, chairman of General Motors, addressed this dilemma when he said , We may have let ourselves grow out of touch with the customers need for continued satisfaction in a time of heightened expectations and the societys concern for

21、 environmental improve-ment and energy conservation. Marketing policies attuned to serving the market as the market wants to be served continue to represent modern company policy. But we are also seeing market-oriented decisions modified by societal concerns, as a result both of law and of responsib

22、le management policies.2.Channels of distribution Efficient production methods, coupled with skilful marketing ,may have ensured that we can produce goods or services cheaply and that there is a market for them. There remains the vitally important question of how we actually get our goods and servic

23、es to the customer.Direct sales to Customers This ,of course, is the oldest form of distribution and in many trades it remains the most important. However, it can be a very awkward one in some businesses such as manufacturing. Customers especially private buyers, are unlikely to go to a factory to b

24、uy what they want, and manufacturing firms , at least one company seeking to sell its chains of petrol filling stations in the mid 1980s.There are other trades where producers sell directly to customers. In some cases this is because producers find it advantageous to control the final retail stage a

25、nd be in a position to offer a complete service, including after-sales service,to the customer.In other industries producers may sell directly to consumers through factory shops, farm shops ,pick-your-own arrangements at farms,by mail order or any other scheme that business ingenuity may devise.Orga

26、nized Markets After direct selling ,markets represent the oldest form of trade from producer to consumer. Here we have in mind not the ratail mardets found in many towns on market days but the markets where producers and traders, especially the traders in commodities make their deals . These markets

27、 , located in many of the worlds major trading centers , including London where most of the main British commodity exchanges are found ,bring together producers and traders who wish to buy in bulk for onward Distribution to the final customer. By commodities we mean goods such as tin, copper , zinc

28、and other metals or bulk foodstuffs like tea, coffee, wheat and cocoa. What distinguishes commodities is that they tend to be sold on the basis of objective descriptions , such as Brazilian coffee or Sri Lankan tea, rather than according to some brand name, though, of course, the experienced buyer w

29、ill be able to distinguish high and low quality goods according to their source or to a wholesaler.Wholesaling The markets we have just outlined are wholesale markets . Wholesaling involves purchasing goods in large quantities from the producer or importer and selling in smaller quantities to the re

30、tailer, or sometimes, to another wholesaler or dealer. A service is provided as the producer prefers to deal with large orders and the retailer in smaller purchases. There are ,however, other services provided by wholesaling besides this breaking bulk. Conventional wholesaling has declined in import

31、ance in recent decades. The functions of wholesaling still have to be undertaken but are now often less important than in the past and where they remain essential are often carried out by manufacturers, or, more noticeably, by retailers. The growth of large chains in retailing has often been made po

32、ssible by the incorporation of wholesaling and retailing within the one organization.Develoments in production methods, in transport and communications have all contributed to this process . When flour was sold by millers in large sacks, breaking bulk was a necessary service for small shops selling

33、to ordinary households. Modern machines have no difficulty in packing flour in paper bags at the end of the production line. Motorway transport, the telephone and telex have brought retailer and manufacturer closer together and the wholesalers warehousing is not always essential to bridge the gap be

34、tween them. Agents Agents may offer an alternative to wholesalers. An agent acts on behalf of another, the principal. The role of the agent in distribution is to take over the work of distribution from the manufacturer. In some ways agents may act much like a wholesaler; in other ways they may act l

35、ike a retailer and sell to the final customer. Agents can be particularly important in servicing foreign markets where they have special local knowledge.Franchising This is a growing form of distribution. A franchise gives the sole right to serve a locality with a particular good or service. Agents

36、often hold sole franchises.The modern trend in franchising is for producers carefully to develop and market the product, including the organization of advertising,and then to leave the retail stage to a franchised independent firm. The franchise holder normally has to pay for the franchise. In retur

37、n they receive a wide range of services from the producer. The shop will be laid out according to a distinctive pattern. Special equipment will be provided,training given and exclusive supplies of materials provided. Franchising has been particularly important in some service trades such as fast foo

38、ds. Its supporters claim that it combines the individualentrepreneurship of the independent franchise holder with the economies of large scale production, advertising and so on. It also provides a role for small firms and personal initiative in an economy which often seems to be dominated by large o

39、rganizations . The systems critics claim that large producers favor it as it gives them retail outlets and retail management at very low cost. It can also lead to frustrated expectations among the franchise holders who will never truly be their own bosses.The marketing Mix As with all business decis

40、ions, there is no one right form of distribution and no one right approach to marketing a firms products. Indeed a single firm may choose different ways of marketing different products. Marketing and distribution managers must choose a combination of different strategies in response to an environmen

41、t in which a number of forces, many of them beyond their control, are at work. The chosen marketing mix (or market mix) of price, distribution channel, advertising and product promotion must be the result of careful analysis of the environment, the available strategies and the nature of the firms pr

42、oduct.市场营销市场营销是一组相互关联的活动，用于确定消费者的需求并对商品和服务进行开发、分销、促销和给产品和服务定价，从而在赢利的前提下满足这些需求。不论一个企业是大还是小，也不论它是生产产品还是提供服务，它的长远的未来是与成功的市场营销操作密切相关的。常言道，“酒香不怕巷子深”，这种说法并不正确。顾客必须对这个产品有需求，有了解，并在需要它的时间和地点能得到它，还得有支付能力。市场营销正是提供了一个使企业最终获得成功的途径。1.市场营销的概念在20世纪初市场营销还不为人知。人们把这个时期描述成一个对消费品的需求过大于公司生产能力的时期。这种对生产的强烈需求导致了企业被生产管理所主宰。“

43、生产导向”成为公司的目标：即，首要任务是生产产品满足需求。所有的能量与智慧全用于生产职能上。销售产品则是无足轻重的；确定消费者的需要的做法更是闻所未闻。随着越来越多的生产者开始通过制造一些热销的产品，像轿车、吸尘器和电冰箱等来相互竞争从而赚取消费者兜里的美元，这些商品已经开始供大于求。各公司不得不去寻找一个确定消费者需求的途径。于是各企业开始转向“市场营销导向”。市场营销导向强调先明确一个特定的消费群体的需求，然后再生产、促销、定价并分销产品，从而满足这些需求并为公司赚取利润。这些以市场营销为导向的公司采用了一种被称之为“市场营销观”的哲学。这种“市场营销观”相信应该在全公司范围内采取一种以消

44、费者为导向的意识，旨在获得长期利润。它包括相信整个企业的努力都是为了确定并满足消费者的需要，以求赢利。生产导向 从19世纪下半叶到大约20世纪20年代，企业基本上是以生产为导向的。人们强调满足顾客基本商品的需要。一般家庭没有多少可自由支配的收入，而且它们对那些与满足基本需要无关的产品需求很小。生产者通过根据直觉判断消费者所需来提供产品满足需要。产品的设计和生产线上的决策主要从生产的角度来考虑。管理层的注意力主要放在如何改进生产方法、提高产量、降低成本上。销售导向 以销售为导向的时期大致是从1920到1950，大萧条时期的那几年除外。这个时期的特点是，人们可自由支配的收入逐渐增加，出现了对不同产

45、品的需求，竞争加剧，而且流通渠道也扩大了。虽然生产决定仍由生产部门的意愿操纵，但销售的角色愈发重要了。由于生产部门能够通过大规模生产技术生产出越来越多的商品，公司的成功开始取决于销售队伍推销货物的能力。市场导向 从1950到1970，这个时期的显著特点是商业的重点不断地转向去理解和回应变化中的市场。二战后的消费者可自由支配的收入大幅度增长，这使得人们对新产品的新服务产生了需求。汽车的大量占有所带来的流动性刺激了郊区的发展，新型购物模式的出现及分销方法的变化。市场的划分越来越细，越来越复杂。产品的生命周期也缩短了。 在这些条件下，生产者们不再处于决定到底去销售什么的位置。当产品无法适应一个更加参

46、差的市场需要时，仅靠销售技巧已无法去解决问题了。为了在市场需求和公司供给之间找到一个更合适的平衡点，也为了能使市场营销活动更好的协调，公司对组织进行重新划分并赋予市场营销部门以更大的职责。 市场营销的角色就是分析市场并解释市场的需要以及这些市场的特殊需求，并将信息提供给工程部、研究部、发展部和生产部。人们还开发出了更行之有效的办法去完成市场营销的传统角色，即产品推销和分销渠道管理。市场营销在定价中的作用也增加了。最后，为公司在制定针对市场变化而做的战略调整时，市场营销部门成为了一个焦点。 市场营销观不仅仅是为自己偏爱的大众设计的利他主义哲学。它是作为一个商业哲学发展起来的，即认为为顾客提供更好

47、的服务就是赚取利润的最好办法。当然，如果走入极端，给予顾客想要的任何东西，例如赔本价也会导致破产。在市场营销观下，市场营销经理的角色发生的另一个变化是，不再强调销售量，而是强调赢利销售。没有可观的利润，就没有一个公司能长久地为顾客提供服务。社会导向 当管理者采用市场营销观时，他们不可能预测到环境问题或社会价值观的变化。这些问题和变化会引发我们对市场导向哲学的质疑。当谈及污染、原材料的有限、以及我们的经济制度对消除贫困明显地无能为力这些话题时，一些人不禁怀疑对个体消费者有益的东西是否对社会也总是有益的。国家的政策同时也导致商业政策，开始越业越注意将对消费者的关心调整为对全社会的关心。通用汽车公司

48、主席托马斯A.莫尔菲对这种困境的看法是，“在一个期望值提高、社会关注环境改善和能源保护的时代，我们也许会逐渐忽略消费者需要不断满意这一需求。”这种全心全意服务市场的市场营销政策依旧代表了现代公司的做法。但我们也将会看到，由于受法制和有责任感的管理政策的影响，以市场为导向的决策已被对社会的关注所改变。 个国家级的品牌形象。零售业还发展了它的“特许专营权”，在那里小的、独立的零售商在一个大组织的指导和控制下进行操作。有时小公司在适应变化和面对经济不景气时表现得较为灵活。因为经营是惟一的收入来源，因此小公司的所有者必须找到能生产或销售的东西以便生存。相同条件下，大公司的一个分支机构只能关闭。另外，小公司会永远存在，因为有独立头脑的人永远存在。他们相当喜欢为自己工作，而不是为大组织工作。2.分销渠道 有效的生产方法加之熟练的市场营销，可以保护我们能廉价地生产商品或提供服务，并保护这些商品和服务有市场。还有一个至关重要的问题，即我们空间如何让我们的产品和服务到达顾客那里。 向顾客直接销售 这当然是分销的最古老的形式。而且在很多行业中依然