语言学 第五章ppt课件.ppt

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1、1,Chapter Five Semantics,2,Focuses:1.The conceptualist view 2.Contextualism 3.Behaviorism4.Leechs 7 types of meaning5. Referential theory6.Sense relation 7.Componential analysis8.Sentence meaning,3,1. Definition:,the study of meaning; More specifically, the study of the meaning of linguistic units,

2、words and sentences in particular.,4,The basic area of study:the meaning of signs;relations between different linguistic units,5,2. Approaches to meaning:What is the meaning of sputnik?I didnt mean to hurt you.Life without faith has no meaning.Fame and riches mean nothing to the true scholar.,6,意义：

3、语言文字或其他符合所表达的内容。 e.g. 节约就是不浪费的意思。 价值；作用。 e.g. 人生的意义,7,Naming theory (Plato) The conceptualist view Contextualism (Bloomfield) BehaviorismTruth conditions,8,Naming theory (Plato)命名论,Words are names or labels for things.N.: objects or eventsadj.: properties of those objects or eventsV.: actions Adv.:

4、the properties of those actions,9,Plato（柏拉图）：词义就是事物、行为和属性的名称，或者说词语有指义或命名的功能。Russell（罗素）：一个词的意义就是一个对象，即一个词意指着某客体，也就是代表着一个客体。,10,Limitations: 1) Applicable to nouns only. 2) There are nouns which denote things that do not exist in the real world, e.g. ghost 3) There are nouns that do not refer to phys

5、ical objects but abstract notions, e.g. joy, impulse, hatred 4) Some words may have different meanings in different contexts. 5) The same reference may have different names.,11,The conceptualist view概念论(ideational theory）,there is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to (i.e.

6、between language and the real world); rather, in the interpretation of meaning they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind.,12,Ogden and Richards: semantic triangle,Symbol/formword/phrase/sentence,Referent/object in the world of experience,Thought/reference/concept,13,The symbol or

7、 a word signifies things by virtue of the concept associated with the form of the word in the minds of the speaker; and the concept looked at from this point of view is the meaning of the word.,14,1. 形式与意义直接相关，用实线连接。意义通过符号形式来表达，形式是语义的载体。2. 意义是在各观事物的基础上概括而成的，是客观事物在头脑中的概括反映，两者也有直接联系，用实线连接。3. 形式和所指之间没有

8、必然的联系，故而两者间用虚线连接，所以同一事物可以用不同的形式来表示。,15,The contextualism 语境论I am near the bank. “black”: black hair The context determines the meaning.,16,Situational context: The setting;The speaker and hearer;The activities;Other participants;External objects and events.Linguistic context: the probability of word

9、s or expressions co-occurrence or collocation.,17,The linguistic model of contextualism,Language is always used in a certain context.,Speaker A language speaker B,Context,18,Important figures of contextualism,Malinowski: For a large class of casesthe meaning of a word is its use in the language. Fir

10、th: We shall know a word by the company it keeps. Halliday: Meaning is the bridge between linguistic forms and situation.,19,A problem with the contextualism,Context is such a complicated concept, consisting of so many factors. 如：世界知识、语言知识、集体知识、参与者、背景、正式程度和基调、媒介、语篇因素、表现等。（胡壮麟 2002：“语境研究的多元化”）,20,Beh

11、aviorism 行为主义论,Behaviorists: “the situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer”.,21,the meaning: “Im Thirsty.” : Jill Jack S_ r s _ R S = Jill sees an apple r = Jill says “Im Thirsty” s = Jack hears Jill says “Im thirsty” R = Jack picks the apple for Jill,22

12、,Jill JackS_ r s _ RMeaning consists in the relationship between speech indicated by the small letters r s and the practical events represented by the capitalized letters S and R that precede and follow them respectively.,23,Important Figures of Behaviorism:Watson：词的意义就是对词的有条件的反应。Bloomfield（布龙菲尔德）：意

13、义就是讲话人的刺激和听话人的反应。（meaning as speakers stimulus and hearers response）,24,Problems:在许多不同的情景中，语词和词句的意义是相同的。意义不能等同于听话人的反应，因为：（1）对同样的话语可以有不同的反应。（2）对不同的语言有同样的反应。（3）对话语没有反应。（4）人们往往要先搞清话语的意义才可能作出反应。,25,Truth conditions真值条件* The king of France is bald.* The declaration of independence was signed in 1976.,26,

14、* Knowing the meaning of a sentence is to know the conditions under which the sentence is true or false.* Knowing the meaning of a word or expression is to know the part it plays in the truth or falsehood of the sentence containing it.,27,3. Leechs 7 types of meaning 1974, Semantics: The Study of Me

15、aning. 7 types of meaning:,28,Conceptual meaningConnotative meaningSocial meaningAffective meaningReflected and meaningCollocative meaningThematic meaning,AssociativeMeaning,29,Conceptual meaning概念意义,(denotative, logical or cognitive meaning).desk: a piece of furniture with a writing surface and usu

16、ally drawers or other compartments Bird: warm-blooded egg-laying vertebrates characterized by feathers and forelimbs modified as wings,30,Concerned with the relationship between a word and the thing it denotes, or refers to. 一个词本身所代表的字面意义或核心意义。two sides: sense (意义)and reference（所指）,31,Sense: concern

17、ed with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form; the collection of all the features of the linguistic form, abstract and de-contextualized.意思、涵义、意义、或系统意义：指与语境无关、仅涉及语言内部成分之间关系的意义，它是意义的中心.,32,the sense of “dog”: A common 4-legged flesh-eating animal, esp. any of the many varieties used by man as a

18、 companion or for hunting, working, guarding, etc.,33,Reference（所指）: what a linguistic form refers to in the physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.指称意义、照应关系、所指意义、参照、或外指意义：即表明词语跟语言外部世界的关系的意义。,34,Look at the picture. In

19、 it, Mary is saying, “Oh! I love this dog very much!” What does the “dog” refer to? The dog in front of Mary!,35,Reference Vs. Context,Linguistic forms having the same sense may have different references in different situations. Linguistics forms with the same reference might differ in sense. Meanin

20、g = sense + reference Semantics Vs. Pragmatics,36,Differences:,意义具有相对的稳定性、明确性；而所指会因人、时、地而异，具有变化性、模糊性。一般说来，意义是抽象化了的定义，多具有非物质化特征；而所指会具有物质化的特征。有意义的词语都有系统意义，但不一定有所指。,37,Connotative (associated) meaning 内涵意义 old (and worn out) blue (and down-hearted) sweet (lovely) 孩子（幼稚，不懂事）,38,The communicative value a

21、n expression has by virtue of what it refers to, over and above its purely conceptual content. 通过语言所指所传达的意义,39,A multitude of additional, non-criterial properties, including not only physical characteristics but also psychological and social properties, as well as typical features.Vary from age to a

22、ge, from society to society, from individual to individual,40,Involving the real world experience one associates with an expression when one uses or hears it.Unstable: they vary considerably according to culture, historical period, and the experience of the individual.Any characteristic of the refer

23、ent, identified subjectively or objectively, may contribute to the connotative meaning of the expression which denotes it.,41,附加在概念意义上的意义，社会、阶级、阶层、集团或个人都可以给一个词附加上内涵意义。 woman: frail, prone to tears, emotional, inconstant; compassionate, hard-working,42,Social meaning社会意义,43,domicile: very formal, off

24、icialresidence: formalabode: poetichome: generalsteed: poetichorse: generalnag: slanggee-gee: baby language,44,Social meaning:,An expression conveys about the contexts or the social circumstances of its use, mainly stylistic meaning of an utterance. 所传达的关于语言使用的社会环境的意义,45,Dialect: the language of a g

25、eographical region or of a social class.Time: the language of the 18th c., etc.Province: language of law, of science, of advertising, etc.Status: polite, colloquial, slang, etc.Modality: language of memoranda, lectures, jokes, etc.Singularity: the style of Dickens, etc.,46,Affective (emotive) meanin

26、g 感情意义I hope for the sake of peace and stability that Clinton will prove himself more statesman than politician.干部，当官的,47,Reflecting the personal feelings of the speaker, including his attitude to the listener, or his attitude to something he is talking about.感情意义：所传达的关于说话人或作者感情，态度方面的意义,48,Reflectiv

27、e meaning（联想意义）Cock：intercourse, ejaculation, erection， sex,49,what is communicated through association with another sense of the same expression.这是一种能引起听者或读者联想的意义，当你听到或读到它们时，会马上联想起别的事情来。,50,Collocative meaning搭配意义pretty: girl, boy, woman, flower, garden, colour, village, etc.handsome: boy, man, car

28、, vessel, overcoat, airliner, typewriter, etc.clear case, clear conscience,51,what is communicated through association with words which tend to occur in the environment of another word.通过联想词语的常用搭配而传达的意义。,52,Thematic meaning 主题意义Mrs Bessie Smith donated the first prize.The first prize was donated by

29、Mrs Bessie Smith.They stopped at the end of the corridor.At the end of the corridor, they stopped.,53,What is communicated by the way in which a speaker or writer organizes the message, in terms of ordering, focus, and emphasis.通过词序和各种强调方式表达出来的意义。两个句子，一个用主动结构，一个用被动结构，尽管所指的事实或所谈的内容相同，但句子的意义不完全一样。,54,

30、4. Major sense relations,Synonymy (同义词)Antonymy （反义词）Polysemy（多义性）Homonymy （同音异义）Hyponymy （下义关系）,55,Synonymy,buy/purchasethrifty/economical/stingyautumn/fallflat/apartmenttube/underground,56,the sameness or close similarity of meaning. Words that are close in meaning are called synonyms. 1) Dialecta

31、l synonyms: used in different regional dialects e.g. autumn - fall, biscuit - cracker, petrol gasoline 2) Stylistic synonyms: differing in style. e.g. kid, child, offspring; start, begin, commence,57,3) Synonyms differing in their emotive or evaluative meaning. e.g.collaborator- accomplice,4) Colloc

32、ational synonyms, e.g. accuseof, chargewith, rebukefor; 5) Semantically different synonyms. e.g. amaze, astound,58,Antonymy husband-wife, passfall;truefalse;presentabsent;married-single Words are opposite in meaning.,59,Gradable antonyms,e.g. old-young, hot-cold, tall-shortGradable antonyms: there a

33、re often intermediate forms between the two members of a pair,60,good - badlong - shortbig -smallFeatures:Can be modified by adverbs of degree like very.Can have comparative forms.Can be asked with how.,61,Complementary antonyms,e.g. alive-dead, male-femaleComplementary antonyms: the denial of one m

34、ember of the pair implies the assertion of the other.,62,alive : deadmale : femalepresent : absentinnocent : guilty,odd : evenpass : failboy : girlhit : miss,63,Relational (Converse) antonymy：buy : selllend : borrowgive : receiveparent : childhusband : wifeteacher : studentabove : belowbefore : afte

35、r,64,Relational (Converse) antonymy：exhibits the reversal of the relationship between the two items.,65,Polysemy多义词,e.g. “table”:A piece of furnitureAll the people seated at a tableThe food that is put on a tableA thin flat piece of stone, metal wood, etc.Orderly arrangement of facts, figures, etc.

36、The same word may have more than one meaning.,66,Homonymy（同音异义）night/knightLead (n.)- lead (v.)ball (n.球)- ball (n.舞厅),67,Homonymy：the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form, e.g. different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both.Homophone：when two words are

37、identical in sound, e.g. rain-reignHomogragh：when two words are identical in spelling, e.g. tear (n.)-tear (v.)Complete homonym： when two words are identical in both sound and spelling, e.g. bank, watch, scale, fast,68,Hyponymy（下义关系）fruit: apple, orange, pearfurniture: desk, chair, bed,69,Hyponymy：t

38、he sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word. Inclusiveness：A is included in / a kind of B. rose and flower,70,Superordinate（上义词）: the word which is more general in meaning.Hyponyms（下义词）: the word which is more specific in meaning.Co-hyponyms: hyponyms of th

39、e same superordinate.,71,5. Sense relations between sentences,(1) X is synonymous with Y(2) X is inconsistent with Y(3) X entails Y(4) X presupposes Y(5) X is a contradiction(6) X is semantically anomalous,72,X is synonymous with Y,X: He was a bachelor all his life. Y: He never got married all his l

40、ife.X: The boy killed the cat. Y: The cat was killed by the boy.If X is true, Y is true; if X is false, Y is false.,73,X is inconsistent with Y,X: He is single.Y: He has a wife.X: This is my first visit to Beijing.Y: I have been to Beijing twice.If X is true, Y is false; if X is false, Y is true.,74

41、,X entails Y（X蕴涵Y）,X: John married a blond heiress.Y: John married a blond.X: Marry has been to Beijing. Y: Marry has been to China.X: John often beats his wife.Y: John is married.,75,Entailment: a relation of inclusion. If X entails Y, then the meaning of X is included in Y.If X is true, Y is neces

42、sarily true; if X is false, Y may be true or false. (下义词蕴涵着上义词，上义词和下义词之间存在着蕴涵关系。),76,E: a relationship between two or more ss . If knowing that one s is true gives us certain knowledge of the truth of the second s, then the first s entails the second. It is concerned with the meaning of the s itself

43、. It does not depend on the context in which a s is used. 蕴涵是两个或更多句子（命题）之间的一种关系。如果已知第一个句子真实给出关于第二个句子真实性的某些信息，那么第一个句子蕴涵第二个句子。它涉及的是句子本身的意义，不依赖于句子使用的上下文。,77,A. john picked a tulip.B. john picked a flower.A. I saw a boy.B. I saw a person.,78,X presupposes Y,X: His bike needs repairing.Y: He has a bike.P

44、aul has given up smoking.Paul once smoked.When did John steal the horse?John stole the horse.,79,P: a semantic relationship or logical connection. A Presupposes B, that is, B is prerequisite of A . A: The queen of England is old. B: England has a queen. In term of truth value: If A is true, B must b

45、e true. If A is false, B is still true; If B is true, A is either true or false. If B is false, no truth value can be said about A. In formula: AB -AB,80,X is a contradiction,*My unmarried sister is married to a bachelor.*The orphans parents are pretty well-off.,81,X is semantically anomalous,*The m

46、an is pregnant.*The table has bad intentions.*Sincerity shakes hands with the black apple.,82,6. Componential analysis wife: +HUMAN ADULT +MALE -MARRIED father：+MALE +ASCEND -DESCEND +LINERL,83,a way to analyze lexical meaning. based on the belief that the meaning of a word can be dissected into mea

47、ning components, called semantic features. a process aiming at breaking down the meaning of a word into its minimal distinctive features or properties, which are also called components by some linguists.,84,One way of describing the components of a word is to use feature symbols, which are usually w

48、ritten in capitalized letters, with “+” “-“ before them, plus sign indicates the presence of a certain property, and minus sign indicates the absence of it.,85,walk: +NATURAL -HURRIED +FORWARD+ONE FOOT ALWAYS ON GROUNDGirl: +HUMAN, -ADULT, +ANIMATE, -MALE,86,kill: CAUSE DIErise: BECOME MORE HIGHrais

49、e: CAUSE BECOME HIGH,87,father: PARENT (x, y) & MALE (x)x is a parent of y, and x is male.take: CAUSE (x, (HAVE (x, y)x causes x to have y.give: CAUSE (x, (HAVE (x, y)x causes x not to have y.,88,Strong Points,provides an insight into the meaning of words and a way to study the relationships that ar

50、e related in meaning.,89,90,91,Show the hyponymy relation between words: man: +ADULT +HUMAN +MALE bachelor: +ADULT +HUMAN +MALE UNMARRIEDDefine the natural categories: +HUMAN 有关人类的名词 -ANIMATE 非动物名词,92,Explain relationship between some sentences: John is a bachelor. 蕴涵： John is a man.,93,Weak Points,