英语语言学布拉格学派纯英文全解ppt课件.pptx

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1、The Prague School,Content,Intruduction,Funded:in 1926. CzechoslovakiaFunder:a professor at the Charlie University of Prague V. Mathesius (1882 - 1946) V.马泰休斯Main activists:included R. Jakobson R.雅柯布逊(1896 - 1982) and N. Trubetzkoy 特鲁别茨科伊(1890-1938).One of the main schools of structural linguistics.

2、Activity center is the Prague language instituteAlso called functionl language.,崔健,Chronicle of the Prague School,According to the changes of its main members and research interests of the transfer into two stages: the first stage from 1926 to build the Second World War broke out; 1915 - The foundat

3、ion of the Moscow Linguistic circle, Jakobson being the president. 1917- Members fleeing Moscow due to October Revolution.1926 - The foundation of the Prague School Linguistic Circle, Jakobson being the vice president1928 - Presenting the Prague Circle manifesto 1929 - the First International Congre

4、ss of Slavists in Prague. Came up with Outline1930 - International phonetic system representative conferencein Prague (detail on language, especially on phonetic structure). 1939 - disruption.,the second stage is from the end of the fiftys and early sixtys to now1960s - sentence pattern model functi

5、onal sentence perspective functional generative approach1970s - Linguistic activity interrupted againAfter 1989 - New societys activities to resume,Characteristic,Of the many ideas developed in Prague School, three points are of special importance. First, it was stressed that the synchronic study of

6、 language is fully justified as it can draw on complete and controllable material for investigation. Second, there was an emphasis on the systemic character of language. Third, language was looked on as functional in another sense, that is, as a tool performing a number of essential functions or tas

7、ks for the community using it.,honetics (语音学): Phonetics is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages, i.e. how they are produced, how they differ from each other, what phonetic features they possess, how they can be classified, etc.phonology (音系学): Phonology aims to discover h

8、ow speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.,12.1.2 Phonology and Phonological Oppositions,12.1.2 Phonology and Phonological Oppositions,Trubetzkoy Principles of Phonologyphonetics belonged to parole and phonology belonged

9、to languethe notion of phonemean abstract unit of the sound system as distinct from the sounds actually produced.A phoneme may be defined as the sum of the differential functions.Sounds may be phonemes in so far as they can serve to distinguish meaning.,distinctive features,A distinctive feature is

10、one that distinguish one phoneme from the another. For example: b and p are the same in every way except that the former is voiced, while latter is voiceless. Therefore, voicing is a distinctive feature.,In classifying distinctive features ,Trubetzkoy proposed three criteria:,their relation to the w

11、hole contrastive system;relations between the opposing elements; andtheir power of discrimination.,Phonological oppositions,Phonological opposition two elements (two phonemes in phonology) only differ in one feature. E.g. in English /g/ in gut, and /k/ in cut are said to be in opposition because the

12、 only difference between them is that /g/ is voiced, and /k/ is voiceless. However, /k/ and /b/ are not in phonological oppositions because they differ in several ways including place of articulation and voicing.Trubetzkoy distinguished nine phonological oppositions among phonemes .,Nine phonologica

13、l oppositions of phonemes,bilateral opposition 双边对立 If the features which two phonemes share belong only to them, they are bilateral opposition; In other words, the features they have in common do not occur simultaneously in any other phoneme.eg. /p/ and /b/ multilateral opposition 多边对立It is a more

14、loosely established relationship: /a/ and /i/ for instence are alike only to the extent that both are vowels, a quality shared by ant other pairs of vowels.,roportional opposition 均衡对立. Two phonemes are proportional if the same contrastive features also serve as the differentiating criterion for oth

15、er pairs of phonemes.E.g. /p/ and /b/, /t/ and /d/, /k/ and /g/ are all distinguished by voice. isolated opposition 孤立对立If the contrastive feature is unique to the pair, that is , it is not a contrastive feature of any other pairs of pnonemes in the language, then the phonemes are isolated oppositio

16、n.For example, English, /y/ and /l/,the former is labial-dental fricative the later is lateral voiced.,rivative opposition 否定对立One member of a contrastive pair mat be characterised by the presence of a certain feature, the other by its absence.aspiration VS lack of aspiration as between /p/ and /b/.

17、gradual opposition 分级对立 the pairs share different digrees of a feature,equipollent opposition 等价对立 Two phonemes are not in gradual opposition, nor in privative opposition, they are logically equipollent. E.G. /t/ and /p/, /t/ and /k/ in English. neutralizable opposition 抵消对立Two phonemes are in oppos

18、itions in some positions but not in others. E.g /b/ and /p/ do not show contrast after /s/.,constant opposition 永恒对立 The pair of sounds occurs in all possible positions without being neutralised.,Trubetzkoy s contributions to phonological theory,Trubetzkoy s contributions to phonological theory conc

19、ern four aspects. First, he showed distinctive functions of speech sounds and gave an accurate definition for the phoneme. Second, by making distinctions between phonetics and phonology, he defined the sphere of phonological studies. Third, by studying the syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations betw

20、een phonemes, he revealed the interdependent relations between phonemes. Finally, he put forward a set of methodologies for phonological studies.,12.1.3 Functional Sentence Perspective功能句法观DefinitionThe functional point of viewCommunication DynamismDegree of CD,Definition of FSP,It is a theory of li

21、nguistic analysis which refers to an analysis of utterances(or texts) in terms of the information they contain.功能句法观是语言学分析的理论，指用所含信息来分析话语或篇章。The principle is that the role of each utterance part is evaluated for its semantic contribution to the whole.其基本原则是话语中每一个部分的作用取决于其对全句意义的贡献。,The functional poi

22、nt of view,Henri Weil 1818-1909 The communication of ideas is a movement from the point of departure(出发点)(known information ) to a goal of discourse (讲话目标) (new information).Mathesius developed the ideas of Weil, and termed the patterning of utterance/sentences into theme (point of departure)rheme (

23、goal of discourse) or theme transition rheme as FSP since this patterning is determined by the functional orientation of the speaker.,The functional point of view,Theme Something already known from the preceding context or as information taken for granted and does not contribute anything new to the

24、information to be transmitted. Rheme The new information to the hearer.E.g John has fallen ill. Theme Rheme (主位) (述位),The functional point of view,It is believed that the movement from the Theme to the Rheme reveals the movement of the mind itself (ideas).FSP describes how information is distributed

25、 in sentences. It deals particularly with the effect of the distribution of known information and new information in discourse.,The functional point of view,Problems with Mathesius definition of theme and rhemee.gAn unknown man asked him the way to the railway station. (“An unknown man” is unknown i

26、nformation.),The functional point of view,The Subject-Predicate distinction is not always the same as the Theme-Rheme contrast.For example: Sally stands on the table. Subject Predicate Theme Rheme On the table stands Sally. Predicate Subject Theme Rheme,Jan Firbas (19212000) Based on the fact that l

27、inguistic communication is not a static phenomenon, but a dynamic one , J.Firbas developed the notion of Communicative Dynamism (CD)Redefined theme and rheme according to the contribution of parts of the sentence to the (further) development of a conversation.,Communicative Dynamism (CD) 交际动态 / 交际力,

28、Communicative Dynamism (CD) 交际动态 / 交际力,CD is defined as the extent to which the linguistic unit contributes towards the development of the conversation , and its meant to measure the amount of information an element carries in a sentence.The distribution of degrees of CD in a sentence determines the

29、 functional perspective of that sentence. theme - given information - carries the lowest degree of CD contributes least to the further development of the communication Rheme - new information - carries the highest degree of CD contributes greatest to the further development of the communication,E.g.

30、A: What about Peter?B: He has flown to Paris. “He” has the smallest contribution, so it carries the lowest degree of CD, but “to Paris” has the greatest contribution, so it carries the highest degree of CD. “has flown” is between “He” and “to Paris” .,Factors affecting the distribution of the degree

31、s of CD,Grammatical structure Linear modification线性修饰 The context of the utterance Semantic structure 语意结构,1. “Linear modification”（线性修饰） (which basically means word order)In a normal sentence, constituents take increasing degrees of CD, with the final element being the most important because it com

32、pletes the communicative purpose of the sentence. By linear arrangement, the element closest to the end of the sentence contributes greatest to the development of the conversation and carries the highest degree of CD. “She could not attend the lecture because she was ill.,2.Context（语境） Context-depen

33、dent elements (pronouns，phrases such as, this book, the man etc.), regardless of sentence position, have low degrees of CD since they carry known information and contribute little to the conversation.,E.g. Police have caught the man. (the man carries the smallest CD.) I used to know him. (him carrie

34、s the smallest CD.),3.semantic (the purpose of communication)Contextual dependence or independence is determined by the very purpose of the communication.In the following 5 situations, CD has no direct link with the position of linguistic element in linear arrangement, but affected by its semantic s

35、tructure.,1) E.g. “I have bought a book. Contextually independent object carries the higher degree of CD 2) E.g. I didnt know you were hurrying to the railway station. Contextually independent adverbial element carries the higher degree of CD than a verb expressing motion. 3) Normally the subject ca

36、rries a lower degree of CD than the verb, object or the adverbial. E.g. A man broke into the house and stole all the money.,4) When the subject is accompanied by a verb expressing existence or appearance and possibly by an adverbial of place and time, if the subject is contextually independent, the

37、subject carries higher degree of CD. E.g. An old man appeared in the waiting room at five oclock. 5) in 4) if subject is known information, and adverbial is unknown information, then adverbial carries higher degree of CD. E.g. The old man appeared in the waiting room at five oclock.,Not all semantic

38、s contents and relations are capable of signalling degrees of CD in the above way.,A contextually independent infinitive of purposeHe went to Prague to see his friend.(lower)In order to see his friend, he went to Prague.(higher),With the direct and indirect objects , contextually independent He gave a boy an apple .He gave an apple to a boy.,There are often exceptions to the Theme-Transition-Rheme sequence , and sometimes the distributional field may be entirely contextually dependent.,For example: A girl broke a vase.(entirely contextually independent),Thank you!,