英语语法：重复与省略.ppt

重复与省略,导 语,重复(Repetition)和省略(Ellipsis)都是突出重要内容的语言手段。重复包括关键词的重复和相同语法结构的重复。句子结构中，关键词的重复可以使主要信息得到充分强调，通过相同语法结构的重复（使用对称的语法结构）也可以突出主要信息。在篇章结构中，关键词的重复往往起着突出主题，连接上下文的作用。因此，重复也是一种篇章纽带。作为篇章纽带，相同语法结构的重复即对称结构(Parallelism)的使用更是一种重要的修辞手段。但值得注意的是，在使用重复手段的同时，要避免引起单调和累赘的感觉，这就要求在结构上的适当变换。,省略是避免重复和连接上下文的另一种篇章纽带。重复是对关键词的重复，而省略则是对反复出现的非关键词加以省略以突出新信息。省略的基本原则是只要不损害语法结构或不造成理解上的困难，能省略的尽量省略。从结构的观点来看，省略的结果出现了不完整的句子，但省略的部分都是明确的，而且可以在上下文中找到。,省略的种类很多，从教材中我们可看到，在并列句中，根据并列部分中的相同成分，可以进行共同主语的省略，共同的助动词的省略，共同的主语和主动词的省略，共同的谓语核心部分的省略以及宾语、主语补语的省略等。在并列名词词组中，可省略共同的名词词组中心词。在复合句中，根据主从句中的相同部分，可以实现主句和从句中的省略。在含有状语分句的复合句中，一般情况是主句在前，在从句中实现省略；如果从句在前，也可以省略主句中的相同部分。,如：Since she has already paid the fee,I must(pay the fee),too.If you stay,I may(stay).此外，当从句的主语与主句相同，且从句的结构是“2unction(if/when/while/though etc.)+Subject+be+Subject Complement”，通常省略从句中的主语和be 动词，形成带连词的非限定分句和无动词分句。这种省略结构在习惯上以成为一种固定形式了。常见的有：when/while+-ing分词；though/if/once+-ed分词；if/whenever+adj.；when/while+介词短语；if+not/so。,补充：,A.还有一种经常出现在对话中分句性省略。它是指整个分句的省略。如：A:Are you Ok?B:Yes(,I am OK)A:I finished the task ahead of schedule.B:How(did you finish the task ahead of schedule)?A:Will it rain tomorrow?B:Perhaps(it will rain tomorrow).,B.相同的从句的省略 如果在并列结构中有不同的连词引导相同的从句，除保留最后一个从句外，可以省略前面一个或几个相同的从句，从而是几个连词连接在一起。如：I dont know when(they did this job),how(they did this job)and why they did this job.We can make arrangements either before(they arrive)or after they arrive.,C.从属连词的省略 如果并列结构中有两个或两个以上的从属连词相同，除第一个以外，其它的都可省略。如：We dont know who can come and(who)will stay with us.我们不知道谁能来，（谁）和我们住在一起。If I buy a detective story and(if)you are interested,you may read it first.如果我买了侦探小说而且（如果）你感兴趣的话，你可以先读。,1.,省略分为两类：一类是依靠上下文的省略，另一类是不依靠上下文的省略。第一类省略现象又可分为简单省略（SIMPLE ELLIPSIS）和复杂省略（COMPLEX ELLIPSIS）：凡是被省略的项目只有在上文或下文找到的叫简单省略。例如：John won the first race and Jim(won)the second(race).My father planned(all the houses)and my brother built all these houses.凡是两个或两个以上被省略的项目既有在上文同时又在下文找到的叫做复杂省略。例如：,My father planned(all these houses)and(my father)built all these houses.I have listened to(your story carefully)and(I have)thought about your story carefully.以上所讲的简单省略和复杂省略主要指并列句中的省略现象而言。至于句与句之间的省略现象，特别是在回答问题时的省略结构，便不存在复杂省略的问题，这类省略结构只能是承接上下文的省略。例如：A:What time do you have to get up when youre staying on the farm?B:About six oclock(=I have to get up at about six oclock.),正因为这类省略结构是密切联系上下文的，往往会发现一些词语相同的省略结构，但由于上下文不同，从而被省略的成分也不同。例如：Are you tired?-Not at all(=Im not tired at all).Thank you very much.-Not at all(=Dont thank me at all).上面讲的是依靠上下文的省略结构，另一类省略结构是不依靠上下文的，即结构中被省略的成分不在上下文中，而只在句子结构本身。这类省略结构常见于非正式文体，被省略的成分往往是句子的起首部分。例如省略主语：(I)Hope to hear from you soon.(You)Had a good time?(He/She)Doesnt look very well today.(It)Sound fine to me.,有时，主语和作用词一起省略：(Im)Sorry I couldnt come.(Are you)Feeling better today?(Do you)Want some?(Have you)Got any writing paper?(Is there)Anything I can do for you?(Its)Time for dinner.Gotta go now.(=Ive got to go now.)有时，被省略的主语和作用词在句末：How wonderful(it is)!,有时，被省略的是句首祈使式动词：(Come)This way,please.(Pass me)the salt please.还有一些不依靠上下文的省略结构如No smoking,Hands up等很难确切指出到底省略了什么成分，这类结构已成为固定用语，可作为特殊省略结构，也可不作省略句处理。另外还有一些习惯用语，它们表面看来好似省略了什么成分，而且也可根据上下文设法填补，但习惯上从来没有人这样做，这就是说，英语中有许多省略结构，经过长期历史发展已成为固定习惯用语，在使用中不须追溯其原先结构形式，更不须设法填补被省略的成分。试比较：,John is as stubborn as his brother.John is as stubborn as a mule.上述第一例可以扩充为John is as stubborn as his brother.(is stubborn)，而第二例则不必作这样的扩充。类似的例子还有：My arguments are as follows.I went there as usual.Come as soon as possible.Out of sight,out of mind.我们之所以要注意区别省略现象和习惯用语，是为了避免在教学中作不必要的语法分析，象上述这些例子都不需要设法去增补被省略的成分，因为不必要的语法分析往往会对初学者掌握用语惯用法起干扰作用。,2.并列、从属与省略2.A 再谈并列句中的省略,如前所述，并列分句可省略各种各样的成分，它既可省略谓语的全部或大部，也可省略除状语外的整个主谓部分；既可省去作用词以及其他助动词，也可保留作用词省去主动词；既可省略宾语或主语补语，也可省略状语。这些省略现象归纳起来主要出现在两个部位，一是句尾，二是“句中”。句尾省略如：John will sing in the party and Mary wont(sing in the party).Tim will go there,and perhaps Tom(will go there too).Bob hasnt writing his report,but he will soon(write his report).,由上述第三例可看出，被省略的动词可以 在时、体形式上与已出现的相应动词不相一致。又例如：Bob is writing his report,but Tom wont(write his report).Bob is writing his report,but Tom hasnt(written his report).“句中”省略是指被省略的部位不在句尾，而在句子当中。例如：Matters consist of molecules,and molecules()of atoms.John is peeling an apple,and Petter()an orange.“句中”省略通常出现在平行、对比的结构中，被省略的部分通常是谓语动词，有时还连同主语补语一齐省掉。例如：,Some went to the left,others()to the right.Phil seemed sad,but Chris()happy.Brian will be playing the guitar,and Joyce()singing.有时，主语和谓语动词一齐省掉，只剩下主语补语：The symbol for hydrogen is H;for oxygen,O;for nitrogen,N.(=;the symbol for oxygen is O;the symbol for nitrogen is N.)正因为“句中”省略通常出现在平行结构中，如果两个分句不在同一层次上，那就不可以这样省略。例如可以说：Alice was happy,but Jane miserable.Paul likes poetry and peter fiction.,但不可以说：*Alice was happy when Jane miserable.*Paul likes poetry and I know that peter fiction.因为上述两例中的when-分句和that-分句都是从属分句，与主句不在同一层次上。由上述诸例也可看出，被省略的项目和已出现的相应项目通常结构相同，如果不是相同的结构，一般不宜省略。例如可以说：The hunter was frightened and was firing at the bear.That man has a gun and has threatened to use it.但一般不说：The hunter was frightened and()firing at the bear.That man has a gun and()threatened to use it.,两个带有相同复杂动词词组的并列分句，不仅可在第二分句中省略主动词已经其后续成分，而且可在不影响句子意义的前提下连同省略一定的助动词。例如可以说：John must have been working on the farm,and Peter must have been(),too.John must have been working on the farm,and Peter must have(),too.甚至可以作最大限度的省略，只保留一个作用词：and Peter must,too.根据上下文 and Peter must,too可理解为 must have been working，但也可能被理解为must+不定式，因此这种省略法有可能引出歧义。,2.B 复杂句中的省略,复杂句中的省略现象通常出现在从属分句中。主句中的省略通常只见于起首部分。省略主句的其他成分一般比较少见。）主句起首部分的省略一般都是不依靠上下文的省略，这种省略句常见于非正式文体。例如：(Im)Sorry Ive kept you waiting so long.(I)Hope youll like it.(It is)No/Small wonder they all loved the boy dearly.,在回答问题时，为了避免重复，整个主句可以省去，或者在yes/no之后直接用从属分句作答。例如：A:Are you determined to go?B:Unless my parents do not approve of it.A:Will you go now?B:Not until I have finished my work.,2）从属分句中的省略现象最常见于状语分句。状语分句如果出现在句末的话，一般都可作句尾省略。例如：John will play the guitar if Mary will(play the guitar).You know grammar better than I(know it).但比较分句中的省略有时会引出歧义。例如：I like to play pingpong with John better than Peter.这个句子可作为两种解释：(a)=better than(I like to play pingpang with)peter.(b)=better than Peter(likes to play pingpang with John).,要避免意义含糊，可作如下处理：I like to play pingpong with John better than with Peter.I like to play pingpong with John better than Peter does.两个并列状语分句，如果从属连词相同，可以省略后一分句的连词。例如：If I can find the letter and(if)you are interested in it,Ill let you have it.如果两个并列状语分句只是从属连词不同，其他相同，则可省略第一个状语分句而把两个从属连词连接起来。例如：I am prepared to meet them when(they like)and where they like.They will be arriving either before(the show begins)or after the shows begins.,象上面两种结构，有时有可保留第二个状语分句的从属连词而省略其余部分：They will be arriving either before the show begins or after(the shows begins).和其他从属分句一样，状语分句一般不可省略主语或主语和作用词一齐省略。例如：The old man was kind to them although he disapproved of the way they dressed.*although()disapproved of the way they dressed.在第三十四和三十七章中我们讲过，某些状语分句可采取带连词的非限定分句和带连词的无动词分句形式，这类结构也可看作省略了主语和作用词be的状语分句。例如：Dont speak until(you are)spoken to.He will work hard wherever(he is)sent by the Party.,这些带连词的非限定状语分句如果是由表示持续动作的动词-ing分词构成，这类分句可以看作省略了主语和作用词be，也可作其他解释。例如：the old lady was looking well although living alone.这个状语分句可以解释为省略主语和作用词be：although(she was)living alone.也可解释为：although she lived alone.又例如：She kept the radio on when doing housework.这个状语分句也可作两种解释：(a)when(she was)doing housework.(b)when she did housework.,如果这类非限定分句是由状语动词的-ing分词构成，那就不存在省略作用词be的问题。例如：Although knowing French,he wrote his applications in English.=Although he knew French,he wrote his applications in English.而不能解释为：*Although he was knowing French,.因为状态动词通常不用于进行体。带连词的无动词状语分句通常都可解释为省略了主语和作用词be：The child is never peevish unless(he is)sick.He inspected me as if(he was/were)a prosecutor.,3)关于名词性that-分句的连词问题，我们已在前面讲过，这里进一步阐述that-分句中的省略现象：在并列复杂句中，如果that-分句从属于第二并列分句而且它的主动词及其随带成分（宾语、补语、状语等）又与第一并列分句相同时，这种that-分句通常可以省略主动词及其随带成分。例如：Mary will sing in the party,but I know john wont(sing in the party).It might rain,nut I dont think it will(rain).,但在带有that-分句的复杂句中，如果还有其他状语分句，这时省略连词that往往会引出歧义。例如：Tell Tim if he is at home Ill call to see him.这句话意义含糊，因为在这里if-分句既可理解为修饰tell，也可理解为修饰call。为了意义明确，象这种句子就不可省略that，而应该说：Tell Tim that if he is at home Ill call to see him.或者说：Tell Tim if he is at home that Ill call to see him.,4)名词性wh-分句作宾语时，如果它的谓语与主句谓语相同，也可省略全部谓语，甚至主语也省略只保留一个wh-词。例如：Someone has used my bike,but I dont know who(has used it).He has gone,but no one knows where(he has gone).Wh-分句如系被动结构，主谓语也可全部省略，只保留by+wh-词。例如：The cup was broken by someone,but I wonder by whom(the cup was broken).Wh-分句中被省略的部分必须与前面已出现的相应部分在语态上保持一致。例如：The cup was broken by someone,but I wonder by whom.*The cup was broken by someone,but I wonder who.,两个并列名词性wh-分句，如果wh-词相同而分句不同，则第二个分句的wh-词可以省略。例如：I noticed how Mary talked to them and(how)they answered her.如果wh-分句相同而词不同，则可省略第一个分句而把两个wh-词连接起来。例如：I dont know when(to meet him)and where to meet him.I want to know by whom(it was ordered)and for whom it was ordered.这种省略现象也适用于某些并列状语分句，如在40。2B2所阐明的情况。,