语言学Morphology形态学.ppt

Chapter 3 Morphology,Morphology,as a sub-branch of linguistics,refers to the study of the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.Generally speaking,morphology can further divided into two broad categories,namely,inflectional(屈折)morphology and derivational mophology,which are both concerned with the smallest unit at the grammatical level.,1.Word,Word:a unit of expression that has universal intuitive recognition by native-speakers,whether spoken or written1.1 Three senses of“word”:1)A physically definable unit:Word may be seen as a cluster of sound segments or letters between tow pauses or blanks.2)Word both as a general term and as a specific term:boy,boys check,checks,checked,checking,3)A grammatical unit:sentence clause phraseword morpheme,1.2 Identification of words,1)Stability:the constituent parts of a complex word cannot be rearranged chairmanmanchair The chairman looked at the audience.The audience looked at the chairman.2)Relative uninterruptibility:New elements cannot be inserted into a word even when there are several parts in a word.disappointment dis+appoint+ment Paul,(Jane)and Rebecca are my classmates.,3)A minimum free form:the smallest unit that can constitute a complete utterance by itself,e.g.-Is Jane coming tonight?-Possibly.Hi.Wonderful.,1.3 Classification of words,1)Variable vs.invariable words:Variable words:One could find ordered and regular series of grammatically different word forms;on the other hand,part of the word remains constant follow,follows,following,followed;mat,mats Invariable words:those words such as since,when,seldom,through,hello.They do not have inflective endings.,2)Grammatical words vs.lexical words:Grammatical words:express grammatical meanings,such as conjunctions,prepositions,articles,pronouns Lexical words:have lexical meanings,those which refer to substance,action and quality,such as nouns,verbs,adjectives,and adverbs.The lexical words carry the main content of a language(content words)and the grammatical words serve to link the different parts of a sentence together(function words).,3)Closed-class words vs.open-class words:Closed-class:a word whose membership is fixed or limited.New members are not regularly added.Pronouns,prepositions,conjunctions,articles,etc.Open-class:A word whose membership is in principle infinite or unlimited.Nouns,verbs,adjectives,adverbsNote:The distinction is not quite as clear-cut as it seems.Prepositions:regarding,throughout,out of,according to,with regard to,in spite of,be means of;Auxiliary verbs,4)Word class:It is close to the notion of Parts of Speech in traditional grammar.Ten word classes are established:noun,pronoun,adjective,verb,adverb,preposition,conjunction,numeral,interjection,article.,Some new categories:A.Particles(小品词):the infinite marker(to),the negative marker(not),the subordinate units in phrasal verbs(get by,do up,look back,turn in,etc.)B.Auxiliaries(助动词):used to be regarded as verbs,linguists tend to define them as a separate word class rather than verbs,such as do,does,did,will,shall,have,has,had,etc.,C.Pro-form(替代形式):refers to the closed sets of items which can be used to substitute for a nominal group(名词词组)or a single noun.Pro-adjective:Your pen is red.So is mine.Pro-verb:He knows English better than he did.Pro-adverb:He hopes hell win and I hope so too.Pro-locative(代处所词):James hiding there,behind the door.,D.Determiners(限定词):words which are used before the noun acting as head of a noun phrase,and determine the kind of reference the noun phrase has,e.g.the,a(n),some,all There are three subclasses of determiners:1)Predeterminers:all,both,half,double,twice,three times,one-third,one-fifth 2)Central determiners:a,an,the,this,that,these,those,every,each,some,any,no,either,neither,my,our,your,his,her,its,their,3)Postdeterminers:cardinal numerals(基数词),ordinal numerals(序数词),general ordinals(一般顺序词):next,last,past,(an)other,additional and other quantifiers like many,a few,several,much,little,a lot of,plenty of,a great deal of,a great number ofWhen different sub-classes of determiners occur together,they follow the order of predeterminers+central determiners+postdeterminers.,Within each subclass,the members are usually exclusive of each other.*their all trouble all their trouble*five the all boys all the five boys*all this boy all these boys*all both girlsBut ordinal numerals and general ordinals may occur before cardinal numerals.the first two days another three weeks,The formation of word,Morphemes:Technically,a morpheme is defined as a minimal meaningful unit in the grammatical system of a language.The components of a word are known as morphemes.They themselves cannot be further analyzed:chairman:chair,man townhall:town,hall boys:boy,-s checking:check,-ing disappointment:dis-,appoint,-ment,Morpheme-the minimal unit of meaning,-Words are composed of morphemes.Words may consist of one morpheme or more morphemes,e.g.1)morpheme boy,desire2)morpheme boy+ish,desir(e)+ble3)morpheme boy+ish+ness,desir(e)+bl(e)+ity4)morpheme gentle+man+li+ness,un+desir(e)+abl(e)+ity5)morpheme un+gentle+man+li+ness6)morpheme dis+establish+ment+ari+an+ism7)morpheme anti+dis+establish+ment+ari+an+ism,Sememe vs.Morpheme,and Phoneme vs.Morpheme,1)Sememe vs.morpheme Sememe(义素)is the smallest component of meaning.e.g.The morpheme s has only one sememe:PLURALITY,meaning more than one.The relationship between sememe and morpheme,five mapping and non-mapping occasions:i.One morpheme vs.one sememe One morpheme has only one sememe.e.g.less,meaning WITHOUT fearless,careless,ceaseless,countless,doubtless,shameless,faceless,speechless,ii.One morpheme vs.more than one sememeOne morpheme may have two or more than two.a-five sememes 1)away,apart“分离，离开”,2)aboard,aside“朝，向”3)asleep,awash,ablush“在，处于,的”4)atypical,asymmetry,abnormal“不，无，非”5)arise,await,arouse,ashamed 表示加强的意思,iii.One sememe vs.more than one morphemeOne sememe is expressed with two or more than two morphemes.表示no和non意义的语素除了a-之外，还有其他的语素，例如e-,dis-,il-,in-,im-,ir-,ne-,un-,non-等。amoral,disagree,erostrate(无喙的),illiterate,impolite,neither,untidy,irregular,nonsmoker,iv.Morphemes that have no specific sememe There are also morphemes that have no specific sememe,but may help change grammatical and semantic categories.e.g.en-enjoy,v.Function changes in both sememe and morpheme without morpheme changeThere may also be no morpheme change in a word,but both the grammatical and the semantic categories would change according to the context it occurs.e.g.run run a company,in a short run,Lexeme(词位),Lexeme:the abstract unit underlying the smallest unit in the lexical system of a language,which appears in different grammatical contextsWrite-write,writes,wrote,writing,writtenFat-fat,fatter,fattest,Allomorph,Some morphemes have a single form in all contexts,such as“dog,bark,cat”,etc.In other instances,there may be some variation,that is,a morpheme may have alternate shapes or phonetic forms.They are said to be the allomorphs of the morpheme,the plural morpheme may be represented by:map-maps s dog-dogs z watch-watches iz country-countries iz mouse-mice ai ox-oxen n tooth-teeth sheep-sheep phenomenon-phenomenaEach of the underlined part is called an allomorph of plural morpheme.,Like phoneme,morpheme is an abstract unit.Morphemes are put between braces like.Some morphemic forms represent different morphemes and thus have sememes.,2)Morpheme vs.PhonemePhoneme:the smallest meaningful unit of soundMorpheme:the smallest meaningful unit in grammarThe correspondence between the two levels of language:MORPHONOLOGY or MORPHONEMICS-a branch of linguistics that refers to the analysis and classification of the phonological factors that affect the morpheme forms,and correspondingly,the morphological factors that affect the phoneme forms.So,it studies the interrelationship between phonology and morphology.,There are several occasions of the relationship:i.A single phoneme vs.a single morpheme A single phoneme may represent a single morpheme,but they are not identical.e.g.aii.A single morpheme vs.multiple phoneme Morphemes may also be represented by phonological structures other than a single phoneme.Morphemes may be monophonemic,monosyllabic or.breik break,iv.Morphemic conditions Morpheme shapes vary according to both phonological conditions and to the conditions of their own.There are two cases:a)Phonologically conditioned:The form or shape of morphemes may be conditioned by phonological factors.injustice imperfect illogical irregular inefficient impenetrable illegal irresponsible infirm impossible illiterate irresolvable,b)Morphologically conditioned:Morphemes can also be conditioned by morphological factors.Three requirements:First,all the allomorphs should have the same sememe,e.g.the plural morphemeSecond,all the allomorphs should be in complementary distribution.Third,allomorphs that have the same sememe should occur in parallel formation.,Classification of morphemes,Morphemes can be clssified both semantically and structurally.Semantically,morphemes are grouped into two general categories:root morphemes and affixational morphemes,or simply speaking,roots and affixes.Structurally,they also fall into two classes:free morphemes and bound morphemes.,Free morpheme&bound morpheme,Free morpheme-is one that may constitute a word(free form)by itself,such as bed,tree,sing,dance,etc.Bound morpheme-is one that may appear with at least one other morpheme.They can not stand by themselves,such as“-s”in“dogs”,“al”in“national”,“dis-”in“disclose”,“ed”in“recorded”,etc.,Derivational morpheme&inflectional morpheme,Derivational morphemes-the morphemes which change the category,or grammatical class of words,e.g.correct-incorrect,edit-co-edit,modern-modernize,length-lengthen,fool-foolish,etc.Inflectional morphemes-the morphemes which are for the most part purely grammatical markers,signifying such concepts as tense,number,case and so on;they never change their syntactic category,never add any lexical meaning,e.g.a)number:tables matches factories b)person,finiteness and aspect:talk/talks/talking/talked c)case:John/Johns d)comparison:tall/taller/tallest,Some other terms,AffixesRoot StemBase,Affixes,Affixes are lexically dependent on roots and do not convey the fundamental meaning of words,such as dis-in the words dislike and dishonest,and ful in careful and hopeful.In other words,an affix is used only to add to or alter the meaning of a root to which it is attached.,Affixes are limited in number in a language,and are generally classified into inflectional and derivational ones.The derivational affixes can be divided into three subtypes:prefix(前缀),suffix(后缀),and infix(中缀).Prefix:in-,para-,mini-，un-,dis-,sub-Suffix:-ise,-tion，-ful,-ly,-ness,-mentInfix:foot/feet,goose/geese,morphology,phonetic,idiomatic,habitual,raticide,Platonic,Root,A root is that part of the word left when all the affixes(inflectional&derivational)are removed,e.g.“desire”in“desirable”,“care”in“carefully”,“nation”in“internationalism”,“believe”in“unbeliev(e)able”,“gress”in“progressive”,A root may be free or bound,but an affix is naturally bound.First,free root morphemes are those that can stand by themselves and are the base forms of words,e.g.black(black,blackbird,blackboard,blacksmith);correct(incorrect,correctness).Free root morphemes are potentially unlimited in number in a language.Second,there are relatively a few bound root morphemes in English,e.g.-ceive(receive,perceive,conceive);-mit(remit,permit,commit,submit);-tain(retain,contain,maintain);-cur(incur,recur,occur);-spect(inspect,respect,expect,suspect,prospect,spectator,spectacles,etc.),Third,a few English roots may have both free and bound variants.Sleep and child slept and children,Stem,A stem is any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix(屈折词缀)can be added.“Friend”in“friends”,and“friendship”in“friendships”.Thus,a stem is part of a word-form which remains when all inflectional affixes have been removed,e.g.“undesiralbe”in“undesirables”.,Base,A base is any form to which affixes of any kind can be added.This means any stem and root can be termed as a base.,The difference between root,stem&base,A base can be added by both inflectional“Desirable”in“undesirable”is only a base.,Word formation,Word formation:the process of how words are formed Two sub-types:The compositional type COMPOUNDThe derivational type DERIVATION,i.Compound:those words that consist of more than one lexical morpheme,the way to join more than one separate word to produce a single form smartphone,cutting-edge,domain name,cloakroom,state-of-the-art,nursing home.In compounds,the lexical morphemes can be of different word classes.,Compounds can be further divided into two kinds:the endocentric compound(向心复合词)the exocentric compound(离心复合词)Endocentric:one element serves as the head,the relationship of“a kind of”;e.g.self-control:a kind of control armchair:a kind of chairExocentric:there is no head,so not a relationship of“a kind of something”,e.g.scarecrow:not a kind of crow breakneck:not a kind of neck,Compounds,Noun compounds daybreak(N+V)playboy(V+N)haircut(N+V)callgirl(V+N)windmill(N+N)Verb compounds brainwash(N+V)lipread(N+V)babysit(N+V)Adjective compounds maneating(N+Ving)heartfelt(N+Ved)dutyfree(N+adj.)Preposition compounds into(P+P)throughout(P+P),Some points about compounds,When the two words are in the same grammatical category,the compound will be in this category,e.g.postbox,landlady,icy-cold,blue-blackWhen the two words fall into different categories,the class of the second or final word will be the grammatical category of the compound,e.g.head-strong,pickpocketCompounds have different stress patterns from the non-compounded word sequence,e.g.red coat,green houseThe meaning of a compound is not always the sum of the meanings of its parts.,Ways of writing a compound:Solid:Compounds can be written as a single word:wardrobe,bodyguard,seashore,cupboard.Hyphenated:They can also be joined with a hyphen:wedding-ring,traffic-light,simple-minded,over-the-counter,Open:Some can be written with ordinary spaces between the two parts:washing machine,traffic island,tax break.Free variation:businessman,business-man,business man winebottle,wine-bottle,wine bottle,ii.Derivation:Derivation shows the relation between roots and affixes.un+conscious unconscious nation+al national national+ize nationalize nationalize+ation nationalizationDerivations can make the word class of the original either changed or unchanged.,Class-changing:NV:lengthen,hospitalize,discardNA:friendly,delightful,speechlessVN:worker,employee,inhabitantVA:acceptable,adorableAN:rapidness,rapidityAV:deafen,sweetenAdjAdv:exactly,quickly,Class-preserving:NN:nonsmoker,ex-wife,bookletVV:disobey,unfastenAA:grayish,irrelevant,Forms derived from derivation are relatively large and potentially open.pre-,-ableIn English there is usually one inflectional affix per word,but multiple derivational affixes are allowed.monumental,transcendental,capability,musicality,accou