西方翻译理论史.ppt

西方翻译简史,西方翻译史上的六次高潮西方翻译史约两千年。公元前三世纪揭开它的第一页的。从广义上说，西方最早的译作是公元前三至二世纪之间，七十二名犹太学者在埃及亚历山大城翻译的圣经。旧约，即七十子希腊文本；从严格的意义上说，西方的第一部译作是在约公元前三世纪中叶安德罗尼柯在罗马用拉丁语翻译的希腊荷马史诗奥德塞。不论是前者还是后者，都是在公元前三世纪问世，因此可以说西方的翻译活动自古至今已有两千多年的历史了。它整个西方发展史上的一个极其重要的组成部分。,（一）古代西方翻译纵观全过程，西方的翻译在历史上前后曾出现过六次高潮或可分为六个大的阶段。首先是肇始阶段。公元前四世纪末，盛极一时的希腊奴隶社会开始衰落，罗马逐渐强大起来。但是，当时的希腊文化仍优于罗马文化，因而对罗马有着巨大的吸引力。翻译介绍希腊古典作品的活动可能即始于这一时期或始于更早的时期。然而，在公元前三世纪中叶，有文字记录的翻译确已问世。被誉为罗马文学三大鼻祖的安德罗尼柯、涅维乌斯和恩尼乌斯，以及后来的普劳图斯、泰伦斯等大文学家都用拉丁语翻译或改编荷马的史诗和埃斯库罗斯、索福克勒斯、欧里庇得斯、米南德等人的希腊戏剧作品。这是欧洲也是整个西方历史上第一次大规模的翻译活动，其历史功绩在于：它开创了翻译的局面，把古希腊文学特别是戏剧介绍到了罗马，促进了罗马文学的诞生和发展，对于罗马以至日后西方继承古希腊文学起到了重要的桥梁作用。,第二个翻译高潮涌现于罗马帝国的后期至中世纪初期，是宗教性质的。在西方，宗教势力历来强大而顽固，基督教教会一向敌视世俗文学，极力发展为 自身服务的宗教文化。作为基督教思想来源和精神武器的圣经，自然成了宗教界信仰的经典。圣经由西伯来语和希腊语写成，必须译成拉丁语才能为罗马人所普遍接受。因此在较早时期就有人将圣经译成拉丁语，到公元四世纪这一译事活动达到了高潮，其结果就是出现了形形色色的译本。以哲罗姆于382至405年翻译的通俗拉丁文本圣经为钦定本，标志着圣经翻译取得了与世俗文学翻译分庭抗礼的重要地位。尤其在罗马帝国和中世纪初期，教会在文化上取得了公断地位，圣经和其他宗教作品的诠释和翻译得到进一步加强。随着欧洲进入封建社会，蛮族建立各自的国家，宗教翻译便占有更大的市场，圣经被相继译成各蛮族的语言，有的译本甚至成为有关民族语言的第一批文学材料。,（二）中世纪西方翻译中世纪中期，即十一至十二世纪之间，西方翻译家门云集西班牙的托莱多，把大批作品从阿拉伯语议成拉丁语。这是历史上少有的基督徒和穆斯林的友好接触，也是西方翻译史上的第三个高潮。原来早在九世纪和十世纪，叙利亚学者就来到雅典，把大批希腊典籍译成古叙利亚语，带回巴格达。在巴格达，阿拉伯人又把这些著作译成阿拉伯语，巴格达一时成为阿拉伯人研究古希腊文化的中心。后来，在托莱多译成拉丁语的许多希腊典籍便是从这些阿拉伯文译本转译的。于是，托莱多成为欧洲的学术中心（类似与巴格达的翻译院），翻译及学术活动延续达百余年之久，影响是非常深远的。,（三）文艺复兴时期的西方翻译十四至十六世纪欧洲发生的文艺复兴运动，是一场思想和文学革新的大运动，也是西方翻译史上的一次大发展。特别是文艺复兴运动在西欧各国普遍展开的十六世纪及尔后一个时期，翻译活动达到了前所未见的高峰。翻译活动深入到思想、政治、哲学、文学、宗教等各个领域，涉及大古代和当代的主要作品，产生了一大批杰出的翻译家和一系列优秀的翻译作品。在德国，宗教改革家路德顺从民众的意愿，采用民众的语言，于1522至1534年翻译刊行第一部民众的圣经，开创了现代德语发展的新纪元。在法国，文学阿米欧先后用了十七年（1542-1559年）时间，译出了普鲁塔克的希腊罗马名人比较列传（简称名人传），查普曼1598至1616年译的伊利亚特和奥德赛，弗罗里欧1603年所译蒙田的散文集，乃是英语文学译著中一群灿烂的明星。,而1611年钦定圣经译本的翻译出版社则标志着英国翻译史上又一次大发展。它以其英语风格的地道、通俗和优美赢得了英语中最伟大的译著的盛誉，在长时期里成为英国唯一家喻户晓、人手一册的经典作品，对现代英语的发展产生了深远的影响。总之，文艺复兴时期乃是西方（主要是西欧）翻译发展史上一个非常重要的时期，它标志着民族语言在文学领域和翻译中的地位终于得到巩固，同时也表明翻译对民族语言、文学和思想的形成和发展所起的巨大作用。文艺复兴后，从十七世纪下半叶至十二世纪上半叶，西方各国的翻译继续向前发展。虽然就其规模和影响而言，这一时期的翻译比不上文艺复兴时期，但仍然涌现出大量的优秀译著。其最大特点是，翻译家们不仅继续翻译古典著作，而且对近代的和当代的作品也发生了很大的兴趣。塞万提斯、莎士比亚、巴尔扎克、歌德等大文豪的作品都被一再议成各国文字，东方文学的译品也陆续问世。,（四）现代西方翻译 西方翻译的第六个大发展极端表现在第二次世界大战结束以来的翻译活动。二次大战后，西方进入相对稳定的时期，生产得到发展，经济逐渐恢复，科学技术日新月异。这是翻译事业繁荣兴旺的物质基础。由于时代的演变，翻译的特点也发生了很大的变化。新时期的翻译从范围、规模、作用直至形式，都与过去任何时期大不相同，取得了巨大的进展。首先是翻译范围的扩大。传统的翻译主要集中在文学、宗教作品的翻译上，这个时期的翻译则扩大到了其他领域，尤其是科技、商业领域。其次，翻译的规模大大超过了以往。过去，翻译主要是少数文豪巨匠的事业；而今，翻译已成为一项专门的职业，不仅文学家、哲学家、神学家从事翻译，而且还有一支力量雄厚、经过专门训练的专业队伍承担着各式各样的翻译任务。,再者，翻译的作用也为以往所不可企及。特别是在联合国和欧洲共同市场形成之后，西方各国之间在文学、艺术、科学、技术、政治、经济等各个领域的交流和交往日益频繁、密切，所有这些交际活动都是通过翻译进行的，因为翻译在其间起着越来越大的实际作用。最后，翻译事业发展的形式也有了很大变化和进步。这主要体现在三个方面：（一）兴办高等翻译教育，如法国、瑞士、比利时设有翻译学校或学府，英、美、苏等国在大学高年级开设翻译班（Translation Workshop），以培养翻译人员；（二）成立翻译组织以聚集翻译力量，最大的国际性组织有国际翻译工作者联合会（简称国际译联）以及国际笔译、口译协会和各国的译协；（三）打破传统方式，发展机器翻译。这第三点实际上是新时期发展的一个重要标志。自1946年英美学者首次讨论用计算机做翻译的可能性以来，翻译机器的研制和运用经过近四十年的曲折历程，已日益显示出生命力。它是对几千年来传统的手工翻译的挑战，也是翻译史上一次具有深远意义的革命。目前，西方翻译事业仍处于第六次高潮之中。,二十世纪中期前西方主要译者及译论,The central recurring theme of“word-for-word”and“sense-for-sense”translation is the core of the debate that has dominated much of translation theory in what Newmark calls the“pre-linguistics period of translation”.Here,we mainly focus on a select few of the influential and readily available writings from the history of translation;namely Cicero,St Jerome,Dolet,Luther,Dryden,Tytler,and Schleiermacher.The distinction between word-for-word”and“sense-for-sense”translation goes back to Cicero(first century BCE)and St Jerome(late fourth century CE)and forms the basis of key writings on translation in centuries nearer to our own.,Cicero introduced his translation of the speeches of the Aticc orators Aeschins and Demosthenes:And I did not translate them as an interpreter,but as an orator,keeping the same ideas and forms,or as one might say,the figures of thoughts,but in language which conforms to our usage.And in so doing,I did not hold it necessary to render word for word,but I preserved the general style and force of the language.,St Jerome,defending himself against criticism of incorrect translation,describes his strategy in the following terms:Now I not only admit but freely announce that in translating from the Greek-except of course in the case of the Holy Scripture,where even the syntax contains a mystery-I render not word-for-word,but sense-for-sense.,Luther follows St Jerome in rejecting a word-for-word translation strategy since it would be unable to convey the same meaning as the ST and would sometimes be incomprehensible.His consideration of the Bible with the language of ordinary people and his consideration of translation in terms of focusing on the TL and the TT reader were crucial in his translation.Typical of this is his famous quote extolling the language of the people:You must ask the mother at home,the children in the street,the ordinary man in the market and look at their mouth,how they speak,and translate that way;then theyll understand and see that youre speaking to them in German.,John Dryden,whose description of the translation process would have enormous impact on subsequent translation theory and practice,reduces all translation to three categories:Metaphrase:word by word and line by linetranslation,which corresponds to literal translation.Paraphrase:translation with latitude,where the author is kept in view by the translator,so as never to be lost,but his words are not so strictly followed as his sense;this involves changing whole phrases and more or less corresponds to faithful or sense-for-sense translationImitation:forsakingboth words and sense;this corresponds to Cowleys very free translation and is more or less adaptation.Dryden criticizes translators such as Ben John,who adopts mataphrase,as being a verbal copier.Tis much like dancing on ropes with fettered legsa foolish task.dryden himself prefers paraphrase.,Dolet set out five principles in order of importance as follows:1 the translator must perfectly understand the sense and material of the original author,although he should feel free to clarify obscurities.2 the translator should have a perfect knowledge of both SL and TL,so as not to lessen the majesty of the language.3 the translator should avoid word-for-word renderings.4 the translator should avoid Latinate and unusual forms.5 the translator should assemble and liaise words eloquently to avoid clumsiness.,Alexander Fraser Tytler defines a good translation in TL-reader-oriented terms to be:That in which the merit of the original work is so completely transfused into another language as to（至于，达到）be as distinctly apprehended,and as strongly felt,by a native of the country to which that language belongs as it is by those who speak the language of the original work.译文：原作的优点完全转移到另一种语言中。译入语国家人士能清楚的理解，并且深刻的感受到原作的优点。译入语国家人士对原作优点的理解和感受与操原作语言的人士相同。（好的翻译是：）原作的优点完全转移到了译入语中，(并且)译入语国家人士与操原作语言的人士对此会有同样清楚的理解和深刻的感受。Tytler has three general laws:1 the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work.2 the style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original.3 the translation should have all the ease of the original composition.,Schleiermacher said in his On the different methods of translating:Either the translator leaves the writer alone as much as possible and moves the reader towards the writer,or he leaves the reader alone as much as possible and moves the writer toward the reader.,附：西方译论简介西方翻译史的另一个侧面是翻译理论的发展。同其他的领域的活动一样，翻译并不依赖理论而存在，然而，翻译的实践总是引出理论并推动理论的进步，理论又反过来指导实践，促进翻译事业的发展。西方最早的翻译理论家是罗马帝国时期的西塞罗。他首次把翻译区分作为解释员（ut interpres）和作为演说家（ut orator）的翻译。西塞罗是从修辞学家、演说家的角度看待翻译的。所谓作为解释员的翻译是指没有创造性的翻译，而所谓作为演说家的翻译则是指具有创造性、可与原著媲美的翻译。这样，西塞罗便厘定了翻译的两种基本方法，从而开拓了翻译理论和方法研究的园地。自西塞罗以来，西方翻译理论史便围绕着直译与意译、死译与活译、忠实与不忠实、准确（accuracy）与不准确（inaccuracy）的问题向前发展。,继西塞罗之后，西方翻译史拥有一大批优秀的翻译理论家。他们在不同时期，从不同的角度，提出了各种不同的理论和观点。在古代，除西塞罗的直译和意译的两分法外，还有昆体良的与原作竞争和哲罗姆的文学用意译，圣经用直译之说；有奥古斯丁的圣经翻译凭上帝的感召和他的有关语言符号理论。在中世纪,有波伊提乌的宁要内容准确，不要风格优雅的直译主张和译者应当放弃主观判断权的客观主义观点；有但丁的文学不可译论。在文艺复兴时期，有伊拉斯莫的不屈从神学权威、圣经翻译靠译者的语言知识和路德的翻译必须采用民众语言的人文主义 观点；有多雷的译者必须理解原文内容、通晓两种语言、避免逐字对译、采用通俗形式、讲究译作风格的翻译五原则.,在十七至十九世纪，有巴托的作者是主人（译者是仆人）、译文必须不增不减不改的准确翻译理论；有德莱顿的直译、意译、拟作的翻译三分法和翻译是艺术的观点；有泰特勒的优秀译作的标准?quot.译作应完全复写出原作的思想、译作的风格和手法应和原作属于同一性质、译作应具备原作所具备的通顺等翻译三原则，有施莱尔马赫的口译和笔译、文学翻译与机械性翻译的区分；有洪堡的语言决定世界观和可译性与不可译性的理论；有阿诺德的翻译荷马必须正确把握住荷马特征的观点。在二十世纪，有费道罗夫的翻译理论首先需要从语言学方面来研究、翻译理论由翻译史、翻译总论和翻译分论三部分组成的观点；有雅克布逊的语内翻译、语际翻译、符际翻译的三类别；有列维的翻译应为使读者产生错觉、翻译是一种作决定的过程和加切奇拉泽的翻译永远是原作艺术现实的反映、文艺翻译是一种艺术创作的文学翻译理论；有弗斯、卡特弗德的翻译在于语言环境对等的语言学翻译理论；有奈达的等同的读者反应和翻译即交际的理论。可以说，所有这些主要观点都是构成西方翻译理论的重要组成部分。,从另一个侧面说，西方翻译理论有主要由两条不同的线构成。一条是文艺学翻译线。这是一条最古老的线，从泰伦斯等古代戏剧翻译家一直延伸到现代翻译理论家（捷克的）列维和（苏联的）加切奇拉泽。按照这条线，翻译被认为是一种文学艺术，翻译的重点是进行再创造。理论家们除不断讨论直译和意译、死译与活译的利弊外，对翻译的目的和效果也进行了分析。他们强调尊重译入语文化，讲究译文的风格和文学性，要求译者具有天赋的文学才华。另一条线从古代的奥古斯丁延伸到二十世纪的结构语言学派，是语言学翻译理论线。它把翻译理论和语义、语法作用的分析紧密结合起来，从语言的使用技巧上论述翻译，认为翻译旨在产生一种与原文语义对等的译文，并力求说明如何从词汇和语法结构上产生这种语义上的对策。,这两条线都各有其偏颇之处。文艺学翻译理论强调翻译的目的和结果，从宏观上强调译文的艺术效果，不甚研究翻译的实际过程和语言的使用技巧问题，也忽略非文艺作品的翻译和文艺作品翻译中的非创造功能。语言学翻译理论的缺陷是，不甚注意作品的美学功能，忽略文艺作品的艺术再现，理论分析往往局限于单个的词、句子或语法现象，而忽略话语结构这一更为广泛的内容。直到最近十年来，随着语言学和翻译理论研究的深入，这种缺陷才开始有所修正。,从发展的趋势看，语言学翻译理论线已占据现代翻译理论研究中的主导地位。理论家大都一致认为，翻译属于语言学的研究范围，是应用语言学和对比语言学的研究范围，是应用语言学和对比语言学的一个分支，与语义学有着密切关系，同时又与文艺学、社会学、人类学、心理学、控制论、信息论等多种科学有关。必须看到，不论是文艺学翻译理论还是语言学翻译理论，它们乃是相辅相成的。翻译既不是在所有时候都是创造性、文学性的，也不是在所有时候都只是传递客观信息的。尤其重要的是，翻译理论的研究必须与实践紧密结合，以指导翻译实践、揭示翻译活动的客观的和内在的规律为其唯一的目的。否则，翻译理论就会失去它的生命力。,The major translation theories and their representative theorists主要翻译理论流派及其代表理论家,1 DYNAMIC EQUIVALENCE(EUGENE.NIDA)Central to Nidas work is the move away from away from the old idea that an orthographic word has a fixed meaning in which a word“acquires”meaning through its context and can produce varying responses according to culture.Nida breaks meaning into referential meaning,and emotiveconnotative meaning.Nida has incorporated key features of Chomskys model into his science of translation.Nida thinks the surface structure of the ST can be analyzed into the basic elements of the deep structure and they are transferred in the translation process and then restructured semantically and stylistically into the surface structure of the TT.,Kernel is a key term in this model.For Nida,kernels are the basic structural elements out of which language builds its elaborate surface structures.In fact,in all the languages there are half a dozen to a dozen basic structures out of which all the more elaborate formations are constructed by means of so-called transformations.In contrast,back-transformation is the analytic process of reducing the surface structure to its underlying kernels.Dynamic equivalence is based on the principle of equivalent effect,where the relationship between receptor and message should be substantially the same as that which existed between the original receptors and the message.,He said:“translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source-language message,first in terms of(in terms of依，据；从方面)meaning and secondly in terms of style.”Dynamic equivalence is defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language.,2.SEMANTIC AND COMMUNICATIVE TRANSLATION(PETER NEWMARK)Communicative translation attempts to produce on its readers an effect as close as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original.Semantic translation attempts to render as closely as the semantic and syntactic structures of the second language allow the exact contextual meaning of the original.Newmark indicates that semantic translation differs from literal translation in that it“respect context”,interprets and even explains(metaphors,for instance),while literal translation sticks very closely to ST lexis and syntax.And he holds that:,In communicative as in semantic translation,provided that equivalent effect is secured,the literal word-for word translation is not only the best,it is the only valid method of translation.By saying that,he might mean if semantic translation would result in an abnormal TT or would not secure equivalent effect in the TL,communicative translation should win out.,3 TEXT TYPES AND TEXT VARIETIES(REISS)Katharina Reisss work in the 1970s builds on the concept of equivalence but views the text,rather than the word or sentence,as the level at which communication is achieved and at which equivalence must be sought.Reiss summaries the main characteristics of different text types as follows:Plain communication of facts:information,knowledge,opinions,etc.the language dimension used to transmit the information is logical or referential,the content or topic is the main focus of the communication,and the text type is informative.Creative composition:the author uses the aesthetic dimension of language.The author or sender is foregrounded(引人注意的),as well as the form of the message,and the text type is expressive.,Inducing behavioral responses:the aim of the appellative function is to appeal to or persuade the reader or receiver of the text to act in a certain way.The form of language is dialogic,the focus is appellative and Reiss calls this text type operative.Audio-medial text,such as films and visual and spoken advertisements which supplement the other three functions with visual images,music,etc.In this diagram,the reference work is the text variety which is the most fully informative text type;the poem is a highly expressive,form-based type,and an advertisement is the clearest operative text type(attempting to persuade someone to buy or do something).Between these poles are positioned a host of hybrid of types.She suggests“specific translation methods according to text type”as follows:,The TT of an informative text should transmit the full referential or conceptual content of the ST.the translation should be in plain prose,without redundancy and with the use of explicitation when required.The TT of an expressive text should transmit the aesthetic and artistic form of the ST.The translation should use the identifying method,with the translator adopting the standpoint of the ST author.The TT of an operative text should produce the desired response in the TT receiver.The translation should employ the adaptive method,creating an equivalent effect among TT readers.Audio-medial texts require the supplementary method,supplementing written words with visual images and music.,She also lists a series of intralinguistic and extralinguistic instruction criteria by which the adequacy of a TT may be assessed.Intralinguistic criteria:semantic,lexical,grammartical,and stylistic features.Extralinguistic criteria:situation,subject field,time,place,receiver,sender and affective implications(humor,irony,emotion,etc.)Reiss feels that it is more important for a metaphor to be retained in the translation of an expressive text than in an informative TT,where translation of its semantic value alone will be sufficient.,4.SKOPOS THEORY(VERMEER)Skopos theory focuses above all on the purpose of the translation,which determines the translation methods and strategies that are to be employed in order to produce a functionally adequate result.This result is the TT,which Vermeer calls the translatum.Therefore,in s