国外社会心理学.ppt

Sensation and Perception,Chapter 3,Chapter 3 Learning Objective Menu,LO 3.1 Sensation and how it enters central nervous systemLO 3.2 How some sensations are ignoredLO 3.3 LightLO 3.4 How parts of the eye work together LO 3.5 How eyes see and how eyes see color LO 3.6 SoundLO 3.7 How parts of ear work together to hear sounds LO 3.8 Hearing impairmentLO 3.9 How to help people with hearing impairmentLO 3.10 How senses of taste and smell workLO 3.11 Sense of touch and experiencing painLO 3.12 How body knows it is moving and balancedLO 3.13 Perception and perceptual constanciesLO 3.14 Gestalt principles of perceptionLO 3.15 How the world is perceived in three dimensionsLO 3.16 How visual illusions workLO 3.17 Factors that influence perception,Sensation,Sensation-the activation of receptors in the various sense organs.Sensory receptors-specialized forms of neurons.Sense organs:eyesearsnoseskintaste buds,LO 3.1 Sensation and the central nervous system,Menu,Menu,LO 3.1 Sensation and the central nervous system,Sensory Thresholds,Just noticeable difference(jnd or the difference threshold)-the smallest difference between two stimuli that is detectable 50 percent of the time.Absolute threshold-the smallest amount of energy needed for a person to consciously detect a stimulus 50 percent of the time it is present.,LO 3.1 Sensation and the central nervous system,Menu,Subliminal Sensation,Subliminal stimuli-stimuli that are below the level of conscious awareness.Just strong enough to activate the sensory receptors but not strong enough for people to be consciously aware of them.Limin-“threshold”Sublimin-“below the threshold.”Subliminal perception process by why subliminal stimuli act upon the unconscious mind,influencing behavior.,LO 3.1 Sensation and the central nervous system,Menu,Habituation and Sensory Adaptation,Habituation-tendency of the brain to stop attending to constant,unchanging information.Sensory adaptation-tendency of sensory receptor cells to become less responsive to a stimulus that is unchanging.Saccades-constant movement of the eyes,tiny little vibrations called that people do not notice consciously;prevents sensory adaptation to visual stimuli.,LO 3.2 How sensations can be ignored,Menu,Psychological Aspects to Light,Brightness-determined by the amplitude of the wavehow high or how low the wave actually is.The higher the wave,the brighter the light will be.Low waves are dimmer.Color-or hue,is determined by the length of the wave.Long wavelengths are found at the red end of the visible spectrum(the portion of the whole spectrum of light that is visible to the human eye),whereas shorter wavelengths are found at the blue end.Saturation-refers to the purity of the color people see;mixing in black or gray would also lessen the saturation.,LO 3.3 Light,Menu,Menu,LO 3.3 Light,Structure of the Eye,Cornea clear membrane that covers the surface of the eye;protects the eye and is the structure that focuses most of the light coming into the eye.Radial kerototomy-vision-improving technique that uses this fact by making small incisions in the cornea to change the focus in the eye.Aqueous humor-next visual layer;clear,watery fluid that is continually replenished and supplies nourishment to the eye.Pupil hole through which light from the visual image enters the interior of the eye.,LO 3.4 Parts of the eye,Menu,Structure of the Eye,Iris-round muscle(the colored part of the eye)in which the pupil is located;can change the size of the pupil,letting more or less light into the eye;helps focus the image.Lens another clear structure behind the iris,suspended by muscles;finishes the focusing process begun by the cornea.Visual accommodation-the change in the thickness of the lens as the eye focuses on objects that are far away or close.Vitreous humor-jelly-like fluid called that also nourishes the eye and gives it shape.,LO 3.4 Parts of the eye,Menu,Retina,Rods,and Cones,Retina final stop for light in the eye.Contains 3 layers:Ganglion cellsBipolar cellsPhotoreceptors that respond to various light wavesRods-visual sensory receptors found at the back of the retina,responsible for noncolor sensitivity to low levels of light.Cones-visual sensory receptors found at the back of the retina,responsible for color vision and sharpness of vision.,LO 3.4 Parts of the eye,Menu,Retina,Rods,and Cones,Blind spot-area in the retina where the axons of the three layers of retinal cells exit the eye to form the optic nerve,insensitive to light.,LO 3.4 Parts of the eye,Menu,Menu,LO 3.4 Parts of the eye,Menu,LO 3.4 Parts of the eye,Menu,LO 3.4 Parts of the eye,Menu,LO 3.5 How eyes see and how eyes see colors,Menu,LO 3.5 How eyes see and how eyes see colors,Menu,LO 3.5 How eyes see and how eyes see colors,Menu,LO 3.5 How eyes see and how eyes see colors,How the Eyes Work,Dark adaptation-the recovery of the eyes sensitivity to visual stimuli in darkness after exposure to bright lights.Night blindnessLight adaptation-the recovery of the eyes sensitivity to visual stimuli in light after exposure to darkness.,LO 3.5 How eyes see and how eyes see colors,Menu,Color Vision,Trichromatic theory-theory of color vision that proposes three types of cones:red,blue,and green.Afterimages-images that occur when a visual sensation persists for a brief time even after the original stimulus is removed.Opponent-process theory-theory of color vision that proposes four primary colors with cones arranged in pairs:red and green,blue and yellow.Lateral geniculate nucleus(LGN)of thalamus,LO 3.5 How eyes see and how eyes see colors,Menu,Menu,LO 3.5 How eyes see and how eyes see colors,Menu,LO 3.5 How eyes see and how eyes see colors,Color Blindness,Monochrome colorblindess-either have no cones or have cones that are not working at all.Red-green colorblindess-either the red or the green cones are not working.Sex-linked inheritance.,LO 3.5 How eyes see and how eyes see colors,Menu,Menu,LO 3.5 How eyes see and how eyes see colors,Menu,LO 3.5 How eyes see and how eyes see colors,Psychological Properties of Sound,Wavelength interpreted as frequency or pitch(high,medium,or low).Amplitude interpreted as volume(how soft or loud a sound is).Purity interpreted as timbre(a richness in the tone of the sound).hertz(Hz)-cycles or waves per second,a measurement of frequency.,LO 3.6 Sound,Menu,Menu,LO 3.6 Sound,Menu,LO 3.6 Sound,Structure of the Ear,Auditory canal-short tunnel that runs from the pinna to the eardrum(tympanic membrane).Eardrum-thin section of skin that tightly covers the opening into the middle part of the ear,just like a drum skin covers the opening in a drum.When sound waves hit the eardrum,it vibrates and causes three tiny bones in the middle ear to vibrate.HammerAnvilStirrup,LO 3.7 Parts of ear work together to hear sounds,Menu,Structure of the Ear,Cochlea-snail-shaped structure of the inner ear that is filled with fluid.Organ of Corti rests in the basilar membrane;contains receptor cells for sense of hearing.Auditory nerve-bundle of axons from the hair cells in the inner ear;receives neural message from the organ of Corti.,LO 3.7 Parts of ear work together to hear sounds,Menu,Menu,LO 3.7 Parts of ear work together to hear sounds,Menu,LO 3.7 Parts of ear work together to hear sounds,Theories of Pitch,Pitch-psychological experience of sound that corresponds to the frequency of the sound waves;higher frequencies are perceived as higher pitches.Place theory-theory of pitch that states that different pitches are experienced by the stimulation of hair cells in different locations on the organ of Corti.,LO 3.7 Parts of ear work together to hear sounds,Menu,Theories of Pitch,Frequency theory-theory of pitch that states that pitch is related to the speed of vibrations in the basilar membrane volley principle theory of pitch that states that frequencies above 100 Hz cause the hair cells(auditory neurons)to fire in a volley pattern,or take turns in firing.Volley principle-theory of pitch that states that frequencies above 100 Hz cause the hair cells(auditory neurons)to fire in a volley pattern,or take turns in firing.,LO 3.7 Parts of ear work together to hear sounds,Menu,Types of Hearing Impairments,Conduction hearing impairment-can result from either:damaged eardrum(which would prevent sound waves from being carried into the middle ear properly),or damage to the bones of the middle ear(sounds cannot be conducted from the eardrum to the cochlea).Nerve hearing impairment can result from either:damage in the inner ear,or damage in the auditory pathways and cortical areas of the brain.,LO 3.8 Hearing impairment,Menu,Surgery to Help Restore Hearing,Cochlear Implant-a microphone implanted just behind the ear picks up sound from the surrounding environment.Speech processor selects and arranges the sound picked up by the microphone.Implant is a transmitter and receiver,converting signals into electrical impulses.Collected by the electrode array in the cochlea and then sent to the brain.,LO 3.9 Helping people with hearing impairment,Menu,Menu,LO 3.9 Helping people with hearing impairment,Taste,Taste buds taste receptor cells in mouth;responsible for sense of tasteGustation-the sensation of a taste.Five Basic Tastes:SweetSourSaltyBitter“Brothy”,LO 3.10 Senses of taste and smell,Menu,Menu,LO 3.10 Senses of taste and smell,Smell,Olfaction(olfactory sense)sense of smell.Olfactory bulbs-areas of the brain located just above the sinus cavity and just below the frontal lobes that receive information from the olfactory receptor cells.At least 1,000 olfactory receptors.,LO 3.10 Senses of taste and smell,Menu,Menu,LO 3.10 Senses of taste and smell,Menu,LO 3.10 Senses of taste and smell,Somesthetic Senses,Somesthetic senses-the body senses consisting of the skin senses,the kinesthetic sense,and the vestibular senses.“Soma”body“Esthetic”-feeling1.Skin senses-the sensations of touch,pressure,temperature,and pain.Sensory receptors in the skinGate-control theory-pain signals must pass through a“gate”located in the spinal cord.,LO 3.11 Sense of touch and experiencing pain,Menu,Menu,LO 3.11 Sense of touch and experiencing pain,Menu,LO 3.11 Sense of touch and experiencing pain,Menu,LO 3.11 Sense of touch and experiencing pain,Menu,When people grasp two braided pipesone with cold water running through it,the other with warm waterthe sensation is very hot and painful.,LO 3.11 Sense of touch and experiencing pain,Somesthetic Senses,2.Kinesthetic sense-sense of the location of body parts in relation to the ground and each other.Proprioceptive receptors(proprioceptors)3.Vestibular senses-the sensations of movement,balance,and body position sensory conflict theory an explanation of motion sickness in which the information from the eyes conflicts with the information from the vestibular senses,resulting in dizziness,nausea,and other physical discomforts.,LO 3.12 Senses that allow body to know it is moving and balanced,Menu,Menu,LO 3.12 Senses that allow body to know it is moving and balanced,Perception and Constancies,Perception-the method by which the sensations experienced at any given moment are interpreted and organized in some meaningful fashion.Size constancy-the tendency to interpret an object as always being the same actual size,regardless of its distance.Shape constancy-the tendency to interpret the shape of an object as being constant,even when its shape changes on the retina.Brightness constancy the tendency to perceive the apparent brightness of an object as the same even when the light conditions change.,LO 3.13 Perception and perceptual constancies,Menu,Menu,LO 3.13 Perception and perceptual constancies,Menu,LO 3.13 Perception and perceptual constancies,Shape constancy,Gestalt Principles,Figureground-the tendency to perceive objects,or figures,as existing on a background.Reversible figures-visual illusions in which the figure and ground can be reversed.,Menu,LO 3.14 Gestalt principles of perception,Menu,LO 3.14 Gestalt principles of perception,Menu,LO 3.14 Gestalt principles of perception,Menu,LO 3.14 Gestalt principles of perception,Do you see an old lady or a young lady?,Menu,LO 3.14 Gestalt principles of perception,Do you see a rabbit or a duck?,Menu,LO 3.14 Gestalt principles of perception,The white and black stripes on these zebras can be reversed both can serve as either figure or ground.,Gestalt Principles,Similarity-the tendency to perceive things that look similar to each other as being part of the same group.Proximity-the tendency to perceive objects that are close to each other as part of the same grouping.Closure-the tendency to complete figures that are incomplete.Continuity-the tendency to perceive things as simply as possible with a continuous pattern rather than with a complex,broken-up pattern.Contiguity-the tendency to perceive two things that happen close together in time as being related.,LO 3.14 Gestalt principles of perception,Menu,Menu,LO 3.14 Gestalt principlesof perception,Depth Perception,Depth perception-the ability to perceive the world in three dimensions.Studies of depth perceptionVisual cliff experiment,LO 3.15 Perceiving the world in three dimensions,Menu,Menu,LO 3.15 Perceiving the world in three dimensions,Monocular Cues,Monocular cues(pictorial depth cues)cues for perceiving depth based on one eye only.Linear perspective the tendency for parallel lines to appear to converge on each other.Relative size-perception that occurs when objects that a person expects to be of a certain size appear to be small and are,therefore,assumed to be much farther away.Interposition(overlap)-the assumption that an object that appears to be blocking part of another object is in front of the second object and closer to the viewer.,LO 3.15 Perceiving the world in three dimensions,Menu,Monocular Cues,Aerial perspective-the haziness that surrounds objects that are farther away from the viewer,causing the distance to be perceived as greater.Texture gradient-the tendency for textured surfaces to appear to become smaller and finer as distance from the viewer increases.Motion parallax-the perception of motion of objects in which close objects appear to move more quickly than objects that are farther away.Accommodation-as a monocular clue,the brains use of information about the changing thickness of the lens of the eye in response to looking at objects that are close or far away.,LO 3.15 Perceiving the world in three dimensions,Menu,Menu,LO 3.15 Perceiving the world in three dimensions,Menu,LO 3.15 Perceiving the world in three dimensions,Pictorial depth cues,Menu,LO 3.15 Perceiving the world in three dimensions,Linear Perspective,Binocular Cues,Binocular cues-cues for perceiving depth based on both eyes.Convergence-the rotation of the two eyes in their sockets to focus on a single object,resulting in greater convergence for closer objects and lesser convergence if objects are distant.Binocular disparity-the difference in images between the two eyes,which is greater for objects that are close and sm