英语学术论文写作.ppt

English Academic Writing,课程介绍 本课程旨在培养学生撰写毕业论文的能力，培养学生对文献材料的综合分析能力和准确清晰地表达个人见解的能力，同时要求学生理解学术理论的要求，避免有意或无意的抄袭。通过学习本课程，学生能够了解从选题、文献调研、资料分析、论文撰写、修改到编辑的基本方法和基本技能，掌握文献检索的方法和文献引用的格式。,课程的基本要求,课上积极参与课堂讨论，课下按要求积极进行文献调研和资料搜集，并按照毕业论文的要求进行相应的模拟训练。大量阅读学术论文，熟悉学术风格和学术规范。,课程描述,（1）毕业论文的基本要求；论文选题的意义、原则、方法与步骤。（2）资料的种类和检索、查阅、搜集方法（尤其是学术期刊数据库的检索和利用）；记笔记和管理笔记的方法；数字资料的存储处理方法；（3）开题报告的格式和构成；文献综述的撰写；（4）论文撰写的主要步骤；论文内容的构成；论文写作中需要注意的问题；（5）学术伦理问题；分清引述、转述和概述；注明文献出处的标准；文内引用格式（MLA和APA）。（6）参考文献格式（MLA和APA，尤其是各种复杂情况的格式）。（7）论文宏观格式和一些形式细节（包括字体、目录、缩进、标点、大小写等等）。（8）论文方向的把握；章节布局；论文修改；摘要写作。,用英语写学术论文的目的,用英语写学术论文的目的主要有两个，一是参加国际学术会议，在会议上宣讲，促进学术交流；二是在国际学术刊物上发表，使国外同行了解自己的研究成果，同样也是出于学术交流的目的。不同的学科或领域、不同的刊物对论文的格式有不同的要求，但各个领域的研究论文在文体和语言特点上都有许多共性。了解了这些语言共性，便会起到触类旁通的作用。对我国青年学者或学生来说，用英语写作的难点不是没有写作材料，不是不熟悉专业词汇，也不是没有打下良好的英语基础。用英语写论文难，是因为不太了解学术英语的语言特点。,完整规范的学术论文 要素,一般来说，一篇完整规范的学术论文由以下各部分构成：Title(标题)Abstract(摘要)Keywords(关键词)Table of contents(目录)Nomenclature(术语表)Introduction(引言)Method(方法)Results(结果)Discussion(讨论)Conclusion(结论)Acknowledgement(致谢)Reference(参考文献)Appendix(附录),学术论文 要素,其中Title，Abstract，Introduction，Method，Result，Discussion，Conclusion，Reference等八项内容是必不可少的(其他内容根据具体需要而定)。在这八项内容中，读者最多的是Title，Abstract和Introduction部分，读者会根据这些内容来决定是否阅读全文。也就是说，一篇研究论文赢得读者的多少，在很大程度上取决于Title，Abstract和Introduction写得好坏。,学术论文 要素,学术论文的正文一般包括Method，Result，Discussion三个部分。这三部分主要描述研究课题的具体内容、方法，研究过程中所使用的设备、仪器、条件，并如实公布有关数据和研究结果等。Conclusion是对全文内容或有关研究课题进行的总体性讨论。它具有严密的科学性和客观性，反映一个研究课题的价值，同时提出以后的研究方向。,学术论文标题的语言特点及写法,论文标题是全文内容的缩影。读者通过标题便能够预测论文的主要内容和作者的意图，从而决定是否阅读全文。因此，为了使文章赢得有关领域里众多的读者，论文的标题必须用最精炼的语言恰如其分地体现全文的主题和核心。,标题的长度,标题 单词总数 名词数 介词数 形容词等 1)Fire Resistant Steels for Construction:Design,Properties and Microchemistry 9 6 1 2 2)Damping Capacity of Shape Memory Alloy 6 5 1 0 3)Microelectronic Assembly and Packaging Technology:Barriers and Needs 8 5 0 3 4)Solid Oxide Fuel Cell:A Survey 6 4 0 2 5)Progress on Fuel Cell and Its Materials 7 4 1 2 6)Computer Simulation and Experimental Study on Cold Shut During Mold Filling 11 5 2 4 英语科技论文中，标题不宜过长，大多为812个单词左右。表6.1和表6.2列出了一些学术论文的标题的字数及词性统计资料。,学术论文标题中字数及词性统计(一),标题 单词总数 名词数 介词数 形容词等 7)On the Fatigue Life Prediction of Spot Welded Components 9 5 2 2 8)Absorbable Implants in Finger Fractures:A Biomechanical and Comparative Study 10 4 1 4 9)Acoustics of Long Spaces:Theory and Application 7 4 l 2 10)Investigation of Air Bags Deployment Forces on Out-of-Position Occupant 7 2 0 11)Semi-Integral Abutments in Bridge Seismic Design 6 3 l 2 12)High Speed Flow Sensor and Fluid Power Systems Modelling 9 7 0 2 13)Surface Engineering of Polymers for Biomedical Application 7 4 2 l 14)The Design of User-Oriented Database of Material Performance Based on Client/Server Model 13 7 3 3.15)Impingement Heat Transfer of Diesel Flames in a Rapid Compression and Expansion Machine 13 8 2 3 平均（约）9 5.5 1.5 2 来源：中国第三届青年学术会议论文集，材料科学与工程技术。北京：中国科学技术出版社，1998。表中列出的是中国科协第三届青年学术年会论文集中15篇英文论文的标题，平均9个单词。,学术论文标题中字数及词性统计(二),标 题 单词总数 名词数 介词数 形容词等 1)Use of Vitamin and Mineral Supplements by the Elderly 9 5 2 2 2)Dietary Supplement and Body Image in Female College Students 9 6 l 2 3)Knowledge of Cardiovascular Disease in University Students 7 4 2 l 4)Severe Weather and the Automobile 5 2 0 3 5)Heavy Weight Contenders：a Look at Fat 7 4 1 2 6)A1uminutn：Is It Hazardous to YourHealth?7 3 1 3 7)The Use of Technology in Higher Education Programs:a National Survey 11 5 2 4 8)Sustaining the Discussion：Ecology in the Humanities Classroom 8 4 l 3 9)Diversity in the Future WorkForce 6 4 1 l 10)Models of Sustaining Human and Natural Development in an Urban Environment 11 3 2 6 11)Variation in Acorn Production and Chemistry of Two Oak Oak Species with respect to Topography 14851 12)Traditional Versus Adult StudiesStudents:the College Experience 8503 13)Solving the Food Shortage Problem in Northeast and Northwest Africa Using Hydroponically Grown Peanuts&Solarly Distilled Water 18 10 1 7 14)Impact of Cancer：Coping Process and Quality of Life 9522 15)Application of Digital Image Analysis for Helping to Define the Prognosis Of Selected Malignancies 14635 平均(约)9.5 5 1.5 3 来源：The Ohio Journal of Science Vol.96(2)表2列出的是从The Ohio Journal of Science中随机挑出的15篇论文的标题，平均95个单词。要想用有限的字数概括全文的主旨，用词必须仔细斟酌和推敲，选择最简练、最准确、最贴切的词来表达全文的主要内容。,标题的用词,从表1和表2可以看出，标题中用得最多的是名词(包括动名词)，平均占总单词数的5060之高。其中有的标题中80以上的词为名词。除名词外，用得较多的是介词，有时使用形容词、冠词、连词、副词。标题是对全文重要内容的高度概括，因此用词要贴切、中肯，不能有任何随意性。为了便于检索，标题中所用的词尽量使用表达全文内容的关键词，下面举例说明标题中关键词的出现率。例1 a 标题：On the Fatigue Life Prediction of Spot Welded Components b 关键词：fatigue spotweld automobile life prediction 疲劳 点焊 汽车 寿命预测 b标题：Computer Simulation and Experimental Study On Cold Shut During Mold Filling 关键词：mold filling computer simulation cold shut casting 铸件充型 计算机模拟 冷隔 铸造 c标题：Investigation of Air Bags Deployment Forces on Out-of Position Occupant 关键词：air bag out-of-position occupant 安全气囊 离位乘员 c 标题：New Fatigue Test and Statistical Method for Metallic Materials Used in Vehicle Transmissions 关键词：fatigue test statistical method test specimens 疲劳实验 统计方法 试样分析：,标题的用词分析,例1a中，有4个关键词，在标题里出现了3个，而标题中出现的两个名词词组fatigue life prediction 和 spot welded components都是文章的关键词。在例1b中，有4个关键词，其中3个出现在标题里。标题中用了4个名词词组：computer simulation，experimental study，cold shut，mold filling，其中3个是关键词。例1c中有2个关键词，在标题里都出现。标题中用了3个名词或名词词组：investigation，air bags deployment forces，out-of-position occupant，其中两个是关键词。例1d中有3个关键词，其中2个出现在标题里。从上面四个例子可以看出，标题中的用词多是文章的关键词，明确、精炼，将文章的主要内容予以高度概括。标题中用得最多的是名词或名词词组，一般不用动词或动词词组。如果用动词，则用非谓语动词形式，如动名词、不定式或分词。从表1和表2可以看出，在标题平均9个单词中，有5.5个是名词，占一半以上。除名词外，用得较多的是介词of，in，on等，再其次是连词and和形容词。偶尔也需要用一些其他词性的词，如副词、冠词等。,标题的结构,学术文章的标题主要有三种结构：名词性词组(包括动名词)，介词词组，名词词组+介词词组。间或也用一个疑问句作标题(多用在人文社会科学领域)，但一般不用陈述句或动词词组作标题。,标题的结构,(1)名词性词组 名词性词组由名词及其修饰语构成。名词的修饰语可以是形容词、介词短语，有时也可以是另一个名词。名词修饰名词时，往往可以缩短标题的长度。以下各标题分别由两个名词词组构成。例2 aSevere Weather and the Automobile(名词词组)(名词词组)bSoil Behavior and Critical Soil Mechanics(名词词组)(名词词组)cHigh Speed Flow Sensor and Fluid Power Systems Modelling(名词词组)(名词词组)dTraditional Versus Adult Studies Students:the College(名词词组)(名词词组)Experience(2)介词词组 介词词组由介词十名词或名词词组构成。如果整个标题就是一个介词词组的话，一般这个介词是“on”，意思是“对的研究”。,标题的结构,例3 a On the Distribution of Sound in a Corridor b On the Crushing Mechanism of Thin Walled Structures(3)名词名词词组+介词词组这是标题中用得最多的结构。例4 aFundamentals of Flow Measurement(名词)(介词词组)bScattered Sound and Reverberation on Gity Streets and in Tunnels(名词词组)(介词词组)cDietary Supplement and Body Image in Female College Students(名词词组)(名词词组)(介词词组)dKnowledge of Cardiovascular Disease in University Students(名词)(介词词组)(介词词组)eDiversity in the Future Work Force(名词)(介词词组),标题的结构,fProgress on Fuel Cell and Its Materials(名词)(介词词组)gDamping Capacity of Shape Memory Alloy(名词词组)(介词词组)hAcoustics of Long Spaces：Theory and Application(名词)(介词词组)(名词词组)i.Investigation of Air Bags Deployment Forces(名词)(介词词组)on Out-of-Position Occupant(介词词组)j.Models of sustaining Human and Natural Development(名词)(介词词组)in an Urban Environment(介词词组)标题中的介词词组一般用来修饰名词或名词词组，从而限定某研究课题的范围。这种结构与中文的“的”字结构相似，区别是中文标题中修饰语在前，中心词在后。英文正好相反，名词在前，而作为修饰语的介词短语在后。,标题的结构,例5 a Progress on Fuel Cell and lts Materials 燃料电池及其材料进展 b Computer Simulation and Experimental Study On Co1d Shut During Mold Filling 铸件充型中冷隔过程计算机模拟及其实验研究 c.On the Fatigue Life Prediction of Spot Welded Components 点焊汽车构件疲劳寿命预测 c Investigation of Air Bags Deployment Forces on Out-Of-Position Occupant 安全气囊对离位乘员作用力的分析与研究(4)其他形式 对于值得争议的问题，偶尔可用疑问句作为论文的标题，以点明整个论文讨论的焦点。,标题的结构,例6 a Do Electromagnetic Fields Affect the Way Plants Grow?b Do Specific Ambient Odors Enhance Short Term Memory Function?c130 Heterotrophic Protozoa Release Major Quantities Of Dissolved Organic Phosphorous in Lake Water?有的标题由两部分组成，用冒号(：)隔开。一般来说，冒号前面一部分是研究的对象、内容或课题，比较笼统，冒号后面具体说明研究重点或研究方法。这种结构可再分为三种模式。模式1 研究课题：具体内容,标题的结构,例7 a Microelectronic Assembly and Packaging Technology：Barriers and Needs b Fire Resistant Steels for Construction：Design，Properties and Microchemistry cAcoustics of Long Spaces Theory and Application dImpact of Cancer：Coping Process and Quality of Life,标题的结构,模式2 研究课题：方法/性质 例8 a Solid Oxide Fuel Cell：A Survey b.Absorbable Implants in Finger Fractures.A Biomechanical and Comparative Study c.The Use of Technology in Higher Education Programs:a National Survey d.Development of New Public Water Supply Well-fields Using Electromagnetic Conductance:,Two Case Studies,模式 3 研究课题：问题焦点 a.Aluminum:Is It Hazardous to Your Health?b.Noise:Good?Bad?Maybe Both?c.Manure:Friend or Foe?,思考题,下面这写论文标题是否合适？如果不合适，请修改。1.Auditory Perspectives of Different Types of Music 2.Electromagnetic Fields Have Harmful Effects on Humans 3.How to Use Water Resources for Irrigation in Semiarid Land 4.Water Quality Can Be Protected Through the Successful Integration of Research and Education 5.The Single Community Concept:A Model for Adult Environmental Education 6.Physics and Art:Conceptual Linkages Can Be Uncovered 7.Diamond Is Used for Electronic Devices 8.Yellow Fevers Effect on Transportation and Commerce 9.The Nature of Student Science Project Is Compared with Educational Goals for Science 10.A Qualitative/Quantitative Analysis of the Administrative Management Institute at Cornell University 11.The Americans With Disability Act and Its Applicability to the Mentally Ill,Human Immune-Deficiency Virus and Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome Populations:A Statistical Analysis,参考答案,下面这写论文标题是否合适？如果不合适，请修改。1.Auditory Perspectives of Different Types of Music(合适)2.Electromagnetic Fields Have Harmful Effects on Humans(不合适）改为：Harmful Effects of Electromagnetic Fields on Humans 3.How to Use Water Resources for Irrigation in Semiarid Land（不合适)改为：Using Water Resources for Irrigation in Semiarid Land 4.Water Quality Can Be Protected Through the Successful Integration of Research and Education(不合适)改为：Protecting Water Quality Through the Successful Integration of Research and Education 5.The Single Community Concept:A Model for Adult Environmental Education(合适)6.Physics and Art:Conceptual Linkages Can Be Uncovered（不合适）改为：Physics and Art:Uncovering Conceptual Linkages 7.Diamond Is Used for Electronic Devices(不合适)改为：Use of Diamond for Electric Devices 8.Yellow Fevers Effect on Transportation and Commerce(合适）9.The Nature of Student Science Project Is Compared with Educational Goals for Science(不合适)改为：The Nature of Student Science Projects in Comparison to Educational Goals for Science 10.A Qualitative/Quantitative analysis of the Administrative Management Institute at Comell University(合适)11.The Americans With Disability Act and Its Applicability to the Mentally Ill,Human Immune-Deficiency Virus and Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome Populations:A Statistical Analysis(不合适)改为：The Americans With Disability Act and Its Applicability to the Mentally Ill,Human Immune-Deficiency Virus and AIDS Populations:A Statistical Analysis,英语学术论文写作的几个细节,A.时态：当提到本文、此图、此表等说明了、表达了什么时要用一般现在时，而不用一般过去时。This paper describes The focus of this paper is Figure 1 shows Most of the common condensation polymers are listed in Table 1-1.B.数：在学术论文里，有时很难顾及数的逻辑。但一般不将逻辑上的问题视为语法错误。只须注意在一个句子中的数和谓语动词的统一即可。单、复数的选用有一些非定性、但可供参考的趋向：,当含意上强调复数时建议用复数。The catalyst concentrations for the different reactions are different.Our research focuses on the syntheses and characterizations of a series of polycarbonates with different chemical structures.The physical and chemical properties of this compound have been studied.The chain lengths of the oligomers with different molecular weights are different.当含意上不强调复数时可用单数或复数。Our research focuses on the synthesis of polycarbonates.The property of the compounds in group 1 is different from the property of the compounds in group 2.The chain length of the oligomers increases with increasing reaction time.,在标题、小标题中或描述一类事物、现象等，提到具体物质时常用复数。【Polyesters】Polymers are macromolecules built up by large numbers of small molecules.The small molecules which combine with each other to form polymer molecules are termed monomers.在标题、小标题或描述一类事物、现象等，提到抽象概念时可用单数、也可用复数。【Step Copolymerization】Newer Types of Step Polymerizations.This chapter will consider the characteristics of step polymerization in detail.,学术论文、有关学术的科普文章中的名词的可数或不可数特性的划分区别于非学术文章非学术文章中的可数或不可数特性可从字典查到。以下是在学术文章中通常视为可数名词的单词：但在一般字典中它们或它们做某种含义解时可能被划归不可数名词。application development consideration composition concentration distribution structure length weight,当同时提及几个图、表、方程式时要用复数(分别单个地提及则不用)：The reaction rate constant can be calculated from Equations 2 and 3.The reaction rate constant can be calculated from Equation 2 and Equation 3.Figs.4 and 5 show C.冠词：单数名词前一般要加冠词：a,the等；但以下情况可不加：表示不特指的、较抽象的概念：This chapter will consider the characteristics of step polymerization in detail.An understanding of the relative ease of cyclization or linear polymerization comes from a variety of sources.Different polymers are synthesized to yield various mechanical behaviors by the appropriate combinations of crystallinity,crosslinking,Tg,and Tm.但需注意这些单词前加冠词也是经常见到的，这是由它在句中的含义决定的(如有一定的特指意义)：Polyisoprene is a typical elastomer it is amorphous,easily crossed,has a low Tg(-73C)and a high Tm(14C).,目录、标题中通常省略冠词：1 Introduction 1-1 Types of Polymers and Polymerizations 1-4 Molecular Weight 1-5 Physical State 图、表的题目中有时可省略冠词：Fig.2-2 Second order plot of the self-catalyzed polyesterification of adipic acid with diethylene glycol at 166 C.Fig.8 Dependence of the ease of cyclization on the size of the ring.化学药品、化学物质前通常不加冠词：The polymerization is catalyzed by protonic or lewis acids although a wide variety of base catalysts such as calcium acetate and antimony trioxide can also be used.图中的横、纵坐标的名称前不加冠词。,D.大小写：请注意以下结构的大、小写：当提及具体第几章、节；图、表；方程式时，首个字母通常要大写。As discussed in Chapter 2,In Section 1.2,we As shown in Figure 1,The results are listed in Table 3.当不指明是第几章、节；图、表；方程式时，首个字母如在句中通常用小写。In the previous chapter,As shown in this figure,E.缩写：以下全名和缩写在文中通常视为同等，可以互换。Figure Fig.Figures Figs.Table Tab.Chapter Chap.Section Sec.Equation Eq.Equations Eqs.,F.一些常用词汇用法 research,study,investigate：research可做名词、动词，但通常做名词用，很少见到动词的用法。句中需要动词时常用study或investigate来表达。detail/detailed：The properties of this compound were studied in detail./The detailed properties of this compound were studied./The details of the properties of this compound were studied.follows/following：The results are as follows:/We got following results:,increase,decrease：均可做名词和动词，We can observe an increase in the reaction rate./The reaction rate increases.focus,concentrate：focus:n.,v.The focus of this paper is This paper focuses on Our study focuses on We focus our study on Our study is focused on concentrate:v.We concentrate our study on Our study is concentrated on effect,affect：effect:n./affect:pose,consist：A is composed of B and C./A consists of B and C.increase,improve：increase:主要指数值上的增加。improve:主要指性质的增加、改善。,G.名词修饰：在学术文章中，很多时候会用到直接用名词做修饰，而不用s 或 of 的形式。常见的这类词有：reaction rate；reaction rate constant；reaction temperature；reaction condition molecular weight distribution H.分词修饰：the reaction we studied；the temperature used；the nonlinearity observed。所有格：非人的所有格用of,而不用s。,关于英语学术论文写作的要求,英文学术论文首先是研究论文，当然要满足对研究论文的共同要求：反映自己的研究成果、创新性、学术性等等。学术水平是论文质量的关键。文字水平是好论文的基础。表达不好的文章决不是好文章。同中文论文一样，首先要讲究文章的合理结构、条理性、逻辑性、表达力等，然后才是英语问题（last but not least）。,许多人有体会，学了多年的英文，并不一定能写出好的英文文字。这里有一个大量实践的问题。我的体会是实践并不限于写作，也包括阅读。不是一般的阅