工程造价毕业论文外文文献.doc

工程造价毕业论文外文文献山东建筑大学毕业设计外文文献及译文 外文文献：Construction Standards and CostsUC Irvine new construction pursues performance goals and applies quality standards that affect the costs of capital projects. Periodic re-examination of these goals and standards is warranted.Construction costs are not “high” or “low” in the abstract, but rather in relation to specific quality standards and the design solutions, means, and methods used to attain these standards. Thus, evaluating whether construction costs are appropriate involves: first, determining whether quality standards are excessive, insufficient, orappropriate; second, determining whether resultant project costs are reasonable compared to projects with essentially the same quality parameters.“Quality” encompasses the durability of building systems and finishes; the robustness and life-cycle performance of building systems; the aesthetics of materials, their composition, and their detailing; and the resource-sustainability and efficiency of the building as an overall system.Overall Goals and Quality StandardsUC Irvine, in order to support distinguished research and academic programs, builds facilities of high quality. As such, UC Irvines facilities aim to convey the “look and feel,” as well as embody the inherent construction quality, of the best facilities of other UC campuses, leading public universities, and other research institutions with whom we compete for faculty, students, sponsored research, and general reputation. Since 1992, new buildings have been designed to achieve these five broad goals:1. New buildings must “create a place,” rather than constitute stand-alone structures, forming social, aesthetic, contextually-sensitive relationships with neighboring buildings and the larger campus.2. New buildings reinforce a consistent design framework of classical contextual architecture, applied in ways that convey a feeling of permanence and quality and- 8 - - 8 -山东建筑大学毕业设计外文文献及译文interpreted in ways that meet the contemporary and changing needs of a modern research university.3. New buildings employ materials, systems, and design features that will avoid the expense of major maintenance (defined as >1 percent of value)for twenty years.4. New buildings apply “sustainability” principles - notably, outperforming Title 24 (Californias energy code) by at least 20 percent.5. Capital construction projects are designed and delivered within theapproved project budget, scope, and schedule.UC Irvines goals for sustainable materials and energy performance were adopted partly for environmental reasons, and partly to reverse substantial operating budget deficits.The latter problems included a multi-million dollar utilities deficit that was growing rapidly in the early 90s, and millions of dollars of unfunded major maintenance that was emerging prematurely in buildings only 10-20 years old. Without the quality and performance standards adopted in 1992, utilities deficits and unfunded major maintenance costs would have exceeded $20 million during the past decade, and these costs would still be rising out-of-control.UC Irvines materials standards, building systems standards, sustainability and energy efficiency criteria, and site improvements all add cost increments that can only be afforded through aggressive cost management. Institutions that cannot manage capital costs tend to build projects that consume excessive energy, that cost a lot to maintain, that suffer premature major maintenance costs, and that require high costs to modify. Such problems tend to compound and spiral downward into increasingly costly consequences.Every administrator with facilities experience understands this dynamic. Without effective construction cost management, quality would suffer and UC Irvine would experience all of these problems.The balance of this document outlines in greater detail the building performance criteria and quality standards generally stated above, organized according to building systems component classes. Each section discusses key cost-drivers, cost-control strategies, and- 9 - - 9 -山东建筑大学毕业设计外文文献及译文important cost trade-offs. Design practices cited are consistently applied (although some fall short of hard and fast “rules”).Building Organization and MassingConstruction cost management starts with the fundamentals of building organization and massing. UC Irvines new structures floor plates tend to have length-to-width ratios<1.5, to avoid triggering disproportionate costs of external cladding, circulation, and horizontal mechanical distribution. Our new buildings tend to be at least three floorshigh - taller if floor plate areas do not dip below a cost-effective threshold, and generally taller in the case of non-laboratory buildings (but not so tall that a high-rise cost penalty is incurred). Other design ratios are observed, such as exterior cladding area/floor area <0.5, and roof+foundation area/floor area <0.4.Architectural articulation is generally achieved through textured or enriched materials,integral material detailing (such as concrete reveal patterning), and applied detailing (e.g.,2window frames and sills), particularly at the building base. Large-scale articulation is concentrated at the roofline (e.g., shaped roof forms) and at the pedestrian level (e.g.,arcades), where it will “create the biggest bang for the buck,” rather than through modulating the building form, itself. This is more than a subtle design philosophy, as the cost impact is substantial.Lab buildings completed in the past decade separate laboratory and non-laboratory functions into distinct, adjoined structures (although such a building may look like one structure). Consolidated non-laboratory functions include faculty, departmental, staff,post-doc, and graduate student offices; restrooms; circulation (elevators, lobbies, primary stairways); classrooms, seminar rooms, conference rooms, and social areas designed tofoster interaction and to provide a safe area for eating and drinking; dry labs and dry lab support functions; and general administrative support.Consolidating these functions into a separate structure provides considerable cost savings: lower-cost HVAC (heating/ventilation/air-conditioning) system, wider column spacing, lower floor stiffness (less stringent vibration criterion), lower- 10 - - 10 -山东建筑大学毕业设计外文文献及译文floor-loading,fewer fire-control features and other code requirements, steel-framed or steel/concrete hybrid structural system with concrete flat-slab flooring system, smaller footings, and(typically) curtain wall fenestration. This approach usually enables offices to have operable windows.This two-building approach can be seen clearly at Gillespie Neurosciences Building, the Sprague Building, Hewitt Hall, and the UCI Medical Center Health Sciences Laboratory,where consolidating and separating non-laboratory functions saved 7-10 percent in overall construction costs and 15 percent/year in energy expense. (The non-laboratory building incurs a small fraction of the energy expense of the laboratory block.)A set of design strategies, applied in combination, has proven effective in controlling the cost of laboratories: Utilizing a consistent lab module Utilizing a reasonable vibration criterion and locating ultra-sensitive conditions at-grade or employing benchtop vibration isolation Using 22 ft. X 22 ft. column-spacing Concentrating fume hoods and utility risers into a central “wet zone,” thus limiting horizontal mechanical distribution Concentrating laboratory support areas into the central core of a laboratory structure, where utilities are available but daylight is not needed, thus enabling lab structures to be 110-132 feet wide Utilizing dual-usage circulation/equipment cross-corridors through this central lab support zone, with sufficient width (typically 11 feet) to line the corridors with shared equipment while providing cross-circulation through the lab support zone Utilizing open laboratory layout with one or more “ghost” corridors for intra lab circulation And, most importantly, concentrating non-laboratory functions into an adjoining, lower-cost structure (as discussed in detail above).To further control laboratory construction costs, non-standard fume hood sizes are minimized, “generic” lab casework is specified, laboratory-grade movable tables- 11 - - 11 -山东建筑大学毕业设计外文文献及译文substitute for fixed casework in some lab bays, building DI systems provide intermediate water quality (with localized water purity polishing in the lab, rather than building-wide),facility-wide piped services do not include gases that can be cost-effectively provided locally via canisters, and glass-wash facilities are consolidated - typically, one glass wash facility for an entire laboratory building.Finally, our design philosophy leans toward generic, modular laboratories supported by a robust building infrastructure, rather than highly customized spaces with limited capacity to make later changes. This is an important trade off. Although some post-occupancy expenses may be necessary to “fine-tune” a laboratory to a PIs requirements, building infrastructure elements typically over sized twenty percent, including HVAC supply ducts, exhaust system capacity, emergency generator capacity, and electric risers and service capacity seldom limit the ability to modify labs to meet researcher needs.Structural and Foundation SystemsFor both cost-benefit reasons and past seismic performance, UC Irvine favors concrete shear wall or steel braced-frame structural systems. The correlating foundation systems depend on site-specific soil conditions. Past problems with undiscovered substrates and uncharacterized soil conditions are minimized through extensive, pre-design soil-testing. This minimizes risk to both the University and the design/build contractor. When feasible, design/build contractors are allowed flexibility to propose alternate structural or seismic-force systems. All structural system designs must pass a peer review, according to Regents policy. This process results in conservative structural design, and an associated cost premium. However, the seismic performance of University of California buildings constructed since this policy went into effect in 1975 appears to substantiate the value of the Regents Seismic Review Policy.Structural vibration is carefully specified in research buildings where vibration-sensitive protocols and conditions must be maintained on above-grade floors. The most cost effective tools to control vibration are generally employed: first, to program vibration sensitive procedures at on-grade locations or to isolate them at the bench; second, to space columns at a distance that does not entail excessive structural- 12 - - 12 -山东建筑大学毕业设计外文文献及译文costs. In laboratory 4buildings we typically utilize 22 ft. X 22 ft. column-spacing. Conversely, where vibration is not problematic a beam/column system can be cost-optimized and lighter floor loading can be tolerated. Design/build contractors are, accordingly, allowed more flexibility under such conditions.To control costs, UC Irvine avoids use of moment-resisting structures; unconventional seismic systems; non-standard structural dimensions; inconsistent, unconventional, or non-stacking structural modules; and non-standard means and methods.Roofs and FlashingsUC Irvine specifies 20 year roofing systems and stainless steel or copper flashings whenever possible. At minimum, we specify hot-dip galvanized flashings.Why this emphasis on flashings? Our roof replacement projects typically double in cost when the old roofing is torn off and it is determined that the flashings have deteriorated. Moreover, many roof leaks of recent years have been due to faulty flashings, rather than roofing membranes or coatings, per se. Saving money on flashings is false economy. Another special roofing expense we may have to incur in order to attain the Regents Green Building Policy is that of reflective roofing. It is too early to understand the potential cost impact. - 13 - - 13 -山东建筑大学毕业设计外文文献及译文 中文翻译：建设标准和成本加州大学欧文分校新建筑追求性能目标和适用的质量标准,影响资本成本的项目。定期复查这些目标和标准是有保证的。施工成本在理论上是没有“高”或“低”之分的,而是关系到特定的质量标准和设计解决方案、手段和方法用于达到这些标准。因此,评估建筑成本是否适当:首先,确定质量标准是否过高,不够,或适当的;第二,确定项目成本是否合理合成相比,项目基本相同的质量参数。“质量”包含的耐久性建筑系统和完成;鲁棒性和生命周期的性能;美学构建系统的材料、结构、和他们的详细描述;资源可持续性和效率的建筑作为一个整体系统。总体目标和质量标准加州大学欧文分校,为了支持杰出研究和学术项目,构建高质量的设施。这样,加州大学欧文分校的设施旨在传达的“外观和感觉”,以及体现- 14 -山东建筑大学毕业设计外文文献及译文加州大学欧文分校的目标可持续原材料和能源性能采用部分是因为环境原因,部分逆转实质性操作预算赤字。后者的问题包括一个数百万美元的公用事业,是迅速增长的赤字在90年代早期,和数百万美元的资金没有着落的主要维修这是新兴建筑只有10 - 20年过早地老。没有质量和性能标准采用1992年,公用事业赤字和未备基金的主要维护成本将超过2000万美元在过去的十年里,这些成本仍然会上涨失控。加州大学欧文分校的材料标准,构建系统的标准,可持续性和能源效率标准,和网站的改进所有添加成本增量,只能通过积极的成本管理提供。机构,不能管理资本成本往往构建项目,消耗过多的能量,成本很大,遭受过早主要维护维护成本,这需要高成本来修改。这样的问题往往化合物和螺旋向下进入日益昂贵的后果。 每一个管理员与设施体验理解这种动态。没有有效的施工成本管理,质量会和加州大学欧文分校将经历所有这些问题。建筑组织和集结施工成本管理始于基础的建设组织和集结。加州大学欧文分校的新结构的波纹板往往有长度,宽度比< 1.5,以避免引发不成比例的成本的外部包覆,循环,和水平机械分布。我们的新建筑往往是至少三层高如果地板板地区高不低于一个划算的阈值,一般高对于非实验室建筑(但没有这么高,一个高层成本惩罚发生)。其他设计比率是观察,如表面熔覆区/面积< 0.5,和屋顶+基础面积/面积< 0.4。建筑清晰度一般是通过变形或富集材料,整体材料详细说明(如混凝土揭示模式),并应用详细说明(如。、2窗框和基材),特别在建筑基地。大规模的清晰度是集中在车顶(如。,形屋顶形式)和行人级别(例如,拱廊),在那里它将“创造最大的货真价实”,而不是通过调制建筑形式,本身。这不仅仅是一个微妙的设计哲学,随着成本的影响是很大的。- 15 - - 15 -山东建筑大学毕业设计外文文献及译文实验室建筑在过去十年里完成实验室和非实验室分离成不同的功能,附加结构(尽管这样的建筑看起来像一个结构)。合并非实验室功能包括教职员工、部门、人员、博士后和研究生办公室,休息室;循环(电梯,大堂,主楼梯);教室,研讨室,会议室,和社会区域设计促进互动并提供一个安全的地方吃吃喝喝;做实验室和干实验室支持函数;和一般行政支持。整合这些功能到一个单独的结构提供了可观的成本节约:低成本HVAC(加热/通风/空调)系统,广泛的列间距,低楼层刚度(不那么严厉的振动准则),低地板加载,更少的火控特征和其他代码的要求,普通的或钢/混凝土混合结构体系与混凝土平板地板系统,较小的立足点和(通常)幕墙开窗术。这种方法通常使办公室有可操作的窗户。这两个建筑方法可以清楚的看到在吉莱斯皮神经科学大楼,大楼的斯普拉格,休伊特大厅,和UCI的医疗中心健康科学实验室,巩固和分离非实验室功能保存7 -在整体施工成本和15% /年的能源费用。(非实验室建筑产生能量的一小部分费用的实验楼。)一组设计策略,联合应用,已经被证明有效的控制成本的实验室:利用一致的实验模块利用合理的振动准则和定位敏感的条件在年级或采用台式振动隔离使用22英尺。X 22英尺列间距集中通风柜和实用冒口进中央“湿区”,因此限制水平机械分布集中实验室支持地区进入中央核心的一个实验室结构,实用工具可用但不需要阳光,从而使实验室结构为110 - 132英尺宽利用双重使用循环/设备十字走廊通过这个中心实验室支持区,有足够的宽度(通常是11英尺)线的走廊与共享设备,同时提供交叉循环通过实验室支持区利用开放实验室布局与一个或多个- 16 -山东建筑大学毕业设计外文文献及译文中间水质量(局部水纯度抛光在实验室里,而非、能覆盖整),设备广泛的管道服务不包括气体,可以在本地提供成本效益通过筒,和玻璃清洗设施合并通常,一个玻璃清洗设备对整个实验室建设。最后,我们的设计理念靠近通用、模块化实验室支持一个健壮的基础设施建设,而不是高度定制的空间和能力有限,使后来的变化。这是一个重要的权衡。尽管一些职位占用费用可能需要“微调”一个实验室,一个的需求,建设基础设施元素通常超过大小的百分之二十,包括暖通空调供应管道、排气系统能力,应急发电机容量和电动冒口和服务能力很少限制能力来满足需求修改实验室研究员。结构和基础系统剪力墙或钢斜撑框架结构系统。相关的基础系统依赖于特定场地土壤条件。过去的问题和未被发现的基板和无特征的土壤条件最小化通过广泛的,预设计的土壤测试。这将最小化风险都大学和设计/建造承包商。在可行的情况下,设计/建造承包商允许灵活性提出交替结构或地震力系统。所有结构系统的设计必须经过同行审查,根据评议”政策。这个过程的结果在保守的结构设计,及相关价格溢价。然而,抗震性能的加州大学的建筑因为这个政策于1975年生效以来,似乎证实评议的价值“地震审查政策。结构振动是仔细研究大楼中指定的协议和条件下振动必须维持在更高年级的地板。最具成本效益的工具来控制振动一般采用:第一,计划在年级上的振动敏感的程序位置或把它们隔离在板凳上;第二,空间列在一个距离,并不需要过多的结构性成本。在实验室4建筑我们通常利用22英尺。X 22英尺列间距。反之,如果振动不是问题一个梁/柱系统可以既轻巧地板加载可以容忍。设计/建造承包商,因此,在这样的情况下允许更大的灵活性。为了控制成本,避免了使用加州大学欧文分校的力矩抵抗结构;非常规地震系统;非标结构维度;不一致的,非传统的,或非叠加结构模块;非标准的手段和方法。屋顶和防雨板加州大学欧文分校指定20年屋面系统