生态旅游可持续发展的规划：以发展中国家的旅游胜地为例进行生态旅游研究外文翻译.doc

生态旅游可持续发展的规划：以发展中国家的旅游胜地为例进行生态旅游研究外文翻译 (2011届)本科毕业设计(论文) 外文翻译题目:Planning for Sustainable Ecotourism: The Case for Research Ecotourism in Developing Country DestinationsJulian CliftonDepartment of Geography, University of Portsmouth, UKAngela BensonCentre for Tourism Policy Studies, University of Brighton, UKResearch ecotourism is a relatively new component of activities within the ecotourism industry, providing research opportunities for visitors focusing on aspects of the natural environment which are principally located in developing countries. This paper is directed towards identifying the nature and causes of socio-cultural impacts of this strand of ecotourism using a case study from Indonesia. The positive nature of socio-cultural impacts perceived by host communities alongside the irregular nature of economic benefits to host communities is analogous with the altruistic surplus theory of individual recognition of communal benefits. Certain characteristics of research eco-tourists are identified as contributing towards host reactions towards visitors which reinforce the contention that this is a desirable form of ecotourism in similar locations.Keywords: Indonesia, socio-economic impacts, visitor motivations, volunteer tourism, ecotourismIntroduction The growth and divergence in the size and nature of the ecotourism sector and its relevance to wider questions of conservation and development has prompted many researchers to focus on the impacts of ecotourism in terms of local economic benefits, changes in socio-cultural attributes of residents and communities as well as the protection of the natural environment. Analyses of these impacts have frequently drawn upon models of tourism development that assume stages or a cycle of evolution reflecting the numbers of visitors and the perceived attraction of the destination. An assumed similarity between ecotourism activities and the early stages of these models has been used to highlight the potential for ecotourism to open up new destinations for subsequent mass tourism development and the need for adequate planning and management of this process. However, this assumption necessitates re-appraisal in light of the current uncertainty in the travel market associated with global political events. Furthermore, the proliferation of ecotourism activities requires that evaluation of impacts associated with ecotourism considers the degree to which particular types of ecotourism are congruent with the destination environment. It is the intention of this paper to identify the impacts of a branch of ecotourism termed "research ecotourism" in a developing country destination characterized by a limited and slowly developing ecotourism industry in the context of understanding the characteristics and motivations of research eco-tourists and the implications that this may hold for tourism planners and managers.Ecotourism and Tourism Development Much has been written on the definition of ecotourism since the popularization of the concept in the late 1980s. Commonly cited elements include references to the need to conserve the physical attributes of the destination environment, the provision of economic opportunities for local communities, avoiding adverse socio-cultural impacts through visitor presence on host communities, ensuring an educational experience for the visitor, or some combination of the above Boo, 1990; Nelson, 1994; Wood, 2002. However, the inherent subjectivity of these definitions has generated concern that the term is prone to overuse, misuse or has limited practical relevance Wall, 1997. Whilst the lack of an agreed definition poses considerable problems in quantifying the magnitude of ecotourism, most authors agree that the market has enjoyed a period of buoyancy and growth exceeding that of the wider tourism sector Ecotourism Society, 1998; Scheyvens, 2002a. This reflects factors such as the availability of relatively cheap air travel, increased disposable income and leisure time in developed countries, the demand to experience pristine natural environments in developing countries while they last Hong, 1985 and the increased awareness of governments, particularly in developing countries, of the potential to capitalize on this demand. These have been given further impetus by the pressure to develop ecotourism as an alternative income-generating activity to facilitate management of the increasing number of protected areas proposed under international conventions Convention on Biological Diversity, 2004. Models of tourism development and theories associated with visitors motivations are two means by which researchers have attempted to explain and predict the nature of tourisms impacts on the host community and environment. Drawing upon concepts of carrying capacity, cycles of tourism development present tourism as passing through phases characterized by differing attitudes and reactions within host communities which may be related directly to the scale and characteristics of tourism Ap&Crompton, 1993; Butler, 1980; Doxey, 1975.It has been suggested that ecotourism activities constitute the early stages of such cycles of tourism development, thereby running the risk of serving to open up destinations for activities associated with mass tourism Cohen, 1987; France,1997. Research into visitor characteristics and motivations is similarly important in that this provides planners with information to help avert the manifestation of negative impacts on local communities whilst also tailoring the product to meet the expectations and needs of the eco-tourist market Hvenegaard, 2002; Palacio& McCool, 1997. These models of tourism assume that, through situating a case study in a context of cycles or stages, the adverse outcomes of future tourism development can be predicted and thereby avoided if possible. Such an analysis is suited to circumstances where a reliable or guaranteed market exists, economic conditions such as exchange rates and economic growth in countries of origin continue to favor the expansion of international tourism as a leisure activity and, perhaps most significantly, political developments do not impinge upon access to the destination for tourists. It is argued here that such a combination of circumstances is increasingly unlikely and, in certain cases, at odds with reality. A brief outline of the situation with regards to tourism in Indonesia is required to illustrate this point.Ecotourism and “Research Ecotourism” Whilst there is an abundance of literature dealing with the varying definitions of what constitutes ecotourism, emphasis is commonly placed on the responsibility to promote and ensure conservation of the natural environment, promote the economic welfare of local communities and minimize adverse socio-cultural impacts arising from contact between visitors and residents Boo, 1990; Fennell,1999; Wearing Neil, 1999. Although it is not the intention of this paper to elaborate on this debate, it is argued that the diversity of activities falling under this broad definition necessitates categorization of ecotourism into more precise groups to facilitate further analysis Mieczkowski, 1995. The recognition of a sector within the ecotourism market directed specifically towards research is not a recent development, being described by Lindberg 1991 as comprising hard core nature tourists such as scientific researchers and more recently categorized by Wearing 2001 in a broader definition as volunteer tourists. This paper uses the term research ecotourism to describe activities consonant with generally accepted definitions of ecotourism which are offered to paying individuals within a research-oriented framework. These activities are primarily directed towards conservation and monitoring of the natural environment as well as research involving villages and local communities in programmers which may be summarized as sustainable community development. Such activities are offered by a variety of organizations such as Coral Cay Conservation, Earth watch, Operation Raleigh, and Trek force which typically offer projects in tropical developing regions such as Central and South America, many countries within Africa, island states in the Pacific and Indian Oceans and south east Asian countries such as Thailand, Cambodia or Malaysia. These are often facilitated through support from international non-governmental organizations such as the World Wildlife Fund or through agreements with host government departments with responsibility for conservation and protected area management. Some domestic research ecotourism organizations also offer projects running in specific protected areas in the home country, but these operate on a much more infrequent basis. A more peripheral status accorded to research ecotourism is also apparent in organizations catering for gap year students and international language teaching programmers. The cost of the placements offered by international specialized research ecotourism operators such as those cited above varies according to location and placement duration but rarely costs less than 1000 and goes up to 4000, which commonly covers all costs incurred on site but excludes international air fares, insurance and similar expenditure. Given the nature, costs and duration of placements, which can run up to a year, it is evident that the target group for research ecotourism is tightly defined and particularly geared towards students, individuals taking a gap year or career break, and the retired. The ability of the latter to participate, however, may be restricted by physical constraints or they may be explicitly excluded by age limits to eligibility as with Operation Raleigh volunteers who must be under the age of 25. Results Perceived socio-cultural impacts of research ecotourism The dominant attitude towards research ecotourism identified through interviews was one of acceptance and enthusiasm. Individuals commonly stated that the presence of visitors to such a remote area enhanced their sense of pride in the region, although the scientific rationale for the research being conducted was not commonly recognized. Communal rather than individual benefits such as the novelty of having young foreign people staying in villages and the excitement this generated, particularly amongst children, were frequently highlighted as positive outcomes. These are illustrated by the statements that it is lovely to see new and different faces and tourists make children happy and smile. Emphasis was also placed on the value of frequent informal interaction with research eco-tourists which afforded individuals the opportunity to practice or improve English language skills or engage in sporting activities. Perceived Economic Impacts of Research Ecotourism Interviews with local residents indicated that the economic benefits associated with research ecotourism, whilst limited in extent, provided grounds for optimism with regards to income-generating opportunities. These were realized through direct employment, rental of accommodation for visitors or the sale of handicrafts and food. However, interviews and personal observations indicated that the extent to which individuals can appropriate these benefits is largely dependent upon the possession of capital or personal attributes. Direct employment required particular skills such as English language or boat handling ability, whilst the numbers employed were noted to remain constant from year to year, reflecting the availability of qualified individuals within the local community as well as the similar number of visitors. The rental of accommodation to the research ecotourism operator was seen to generate economic benefits for a wider section of the local community, as houses were all owned by local residents and, in most cases, built specifically for that purpose. However, it is evident that participation in this activity is restricted to those with land ownership rights on the island of Hoga and the ability to invest in new construction. On the other hand, the sale of handicrafts and food is open to a greater variety of individuals and affords groups such as women, the young and older members of the local community the opportunity to participate.Conclusions This study has demonstrated the existence of intangible socio-cultural benefits associated with research ecotourism in a developing country destination which, despite the domination of local elites with regard to economic benefits, generate support for research ecotourism amongst local residents. These benefits are shown to be reflective of research eco-tourists characteristics and travel motivations. It is therefore argued that planning for ecotourism in destinations such as the Wakatobi should seek to prioritize activities such as research ecotourism. This is based upon the reasoning that this form of ecotourism, although small in scale and generating relatively limited economic benefits due to its focus on scientific research, would be less likely to cause adverse socio-cultural impacts in light of the characteristics and activities of the research eco-tourists. In particular, their willingness to take on information relating to local norms, cultures and beliefs and the desire to incorporate cultural exchange within a relatively rigorous set of personal values relating to ecotourism are significant in this respect. Social contact between host and visitor takes place in a context of enthusiasm and understanding respectively, despite the potential for considerable adverse impacts given their differing backgrounds, which facilitates the development of the positive outcomes outlined in this case study. Furthermore, negative environmental impacts are less likely to occur when the eco-tourist market is geared towards carrying out research into the marine environment as opposed to expanding the industry into activities such as nature-based tourism which, if poorly managed, can lead to degeneration of environmental quality as seen in many other marine national parks. In addition, the low level of significance accorded to government advice on travel to Indonesia evident through personal discussions with research eco-tourists, combined with the significance of achieving personal goals as a prime motive for travel, indicates that this particular sector of the market could be a more stable long-term prospect which is less vulnerable to external political influences than other forms of ecotourism such as nature-based ecotourism, which typically involve older more affluent individuals with a wider choice of destinations. These considerations take on added significance given the pressure to develop ecotourism as an income generating activity in the outer islands such as Sulawesi Dalem, 2002 and the ongoing devolution of political authority to provincial a