Comprehending English EuphemismUsing Conceptual Integration Theory 运用概念整合理论理解英语委婉语.doc

运用概念整合理论理解英语委婉语Comprehending English Euphemism by Using Conceptual Integration TheoryAbstract     Euphemisms are roundabout expressions, substituting indirect, vague,pleasant and mild words for more explicit and offensive ones, with the purpose of avoiding taboos, showing elegance or avoiding hurting other people's feelings.They are common phenomena in human language and also strategies of harmonizing interpersonal relationship and smoothing social communication. As Rawson mentioned, euphemisms "are embedded so deeply in our language that few of us, even those who pride themselves on being plain-spoken, ever go through a day without them".       Euphemisms are widely used in social communication ,some studies at home and abroad have made considerable achievements under the scopes of rhetoric, lexicography, semantics, sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics, Fuzzy theory, pragmatics, and so on. However, few researches have been conducted into the scope of cognitive semantics, especially within the framework of Conceptual Integration Theory. So the previous studies have not unfolded the cognitive process when euphemisms are used. Conceptual Integration (Blending) is a general cognitive operation on a par with analogy,recursion, mental modeling, conceptual categorization, and framing. From the perspective of semantics, this theory urges the users to break the original semantic convention by describing something or some feelings unusual or even absurd when taken literally. From the aspect of cognitive linguistics, it refers to two mental spaces that are connected by cross-space mapping, and two input spaces that are projected onto a third space, which can be explained dynamically, i.e. the blended space by selective projection. Thus the new conceptual categorization is built, namely, the emergent structure appears. This thesis is a tentative study that focuses on exploring the human cognitive activity and the process of meaning construction in the framework of Conceptual Integration Theory. This study aims to interpret English euphemism from a new perspective. Key Words: English euphemism;conceptual integration theory;comprehension内 容 摘 要 委婉语是一种迂回的表达方法，它以间接、含蓄、愉悦的说法代替直截了当、令人不悦的说法，其目的是回避禁忌、显示高雅、避免伤害他人。委婉语既是一种普遍的语言现象，也是一种调节人际关系、使社会交际顺畅的手段。正如Rawson所述，委婉语“渗透到我们的语言深处，没有哪一个人-包括那些自诩言谈最为直截了当的人-没有一天不使用委婉语的。”由此可见委婉语的使用之广泛。国内外的学者对委婉语的研究在修辞学、语义学、词典编纂、社会语言学、心理语言学、模糊语言学、语用学等诸多方面取得了很大的进展，但是在认知语义学领域，尤其是在概念整合理论的框架下，对委婉语的研究却很少，以往的研究都未涉及到人类使用委婉语时的认知解读过程。 概念整合是一个不可缺少的与类比、递归、心理模式、概念范畴和框定同等的一般性认知操作。从语义学的角度来说，概念整合的语言使用者通过描述一种表面上看来不正常甚至荒谬的事情或情感以引起读者意外或震惊，促使读者及时调整他的概念范畴。从认知角度来讲，概念整合就是将两个输入心理空间通过跨空间的部分映射匹配起来，将两个输入空间有选择地投射到一个可以得到动态解释的空间，即合成空间，新的概念范畴得以建立。基于此，该选题尝试在概念整合理论的框架下对委婉语的意义建构进行认知解读，从而探索人类使用委婉语时的认知活动。作者籍此为委婉语的研究提供一个新的视角。关键词：英语委婉语;概念整合理论;理解ContentsIntroduction11 Comprehension of Euphemism21.1 Definition of euphemism:a linguistic concept31.2 Function and Motives of Euphemism41.2.1 Substitution of taboo words51.2.2 Strategic use of language72. Conceptual Integration Theory92.1 Conceptual Integration102.1.1 Discovery of Conceptual Integration102.1.2 Characteristics of Conceptual Integration102.1.3 Role of Conceptual Integration112.2 The Network Model of Conceptual Integration113. Application of Conceptual Integration Theory in Comprehending Euphemism133.1 General Description143.2 Fusion with Selection193.3 Asymmetric Topicality203.4 Category Extension and Change233.5 Directionality25Conclusion28Notes29Acknowledgments31Introduction According to Faucolulier&Turner , Conceptual Integration Theory has a big power of interpreting various levels of meaning construction. This study is of significance in that it may bring the study of euphemisms to a new stage by offering a firm theoretical basis for the explanation of euphemism. In China, euphemisms are paid more attention to, especially when we mention taboos. In general, we may introduce this research result of English euphemism studies into China combined with an examination of what have been achieved domestically in an effort to explore possibilities of research in various academic aspects, and of the ways in which euphemisms could be integrated in promotion of interpersonal relations. Traditional linguistics regard euphemism as decoration of language form. Therefore, euphemism is only studied in rhetoric, lexicography, semantics, sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics, Fuzzy Theory, and pragmatics and so on. In fact, euphemism has two aspects: motivation and cognition. Motivation refers tothe reason of creating euphemism, while cognition refers to the activity or process of understanding euphemism. Current study of cognitive linguistics and psychology shows that euphemism is not only an important expression of language, but also an important expression of cognition, concept and thought. The meaning of euphemism is not the simple, direct combination of symbol and entity. It is the implicature that symbol of language reflects with the interferences of the intelligence of users, contextual and non-contextual factors. So cognition of euphemism is ignored in the previous study. In addition, although euphemism has been studied in many fields and each field has its own characteristics, little work has been done on the meaning construction of euphemism from cognitive linguistics, and less attention has been paid to the importance of person's cognitive ability in the process ofunderstanding. According to Fauconnier&Turner ，Conceptual Integration is taken as a pervasive cognitive process in the meaning construction of natural language. It plays a significant role in many areas of cognition, including everyday meaning construction, conceptual changes, metaphor and analogy, scientific discovery, grammar, action and design. The central problem we attempt to solve is: how do people understand euphemism? Euphemism, a common phenomenon in human language is a reflection of the mode of cognition. This thesis attempts to explore the human cognitive process when euphemisms are used by investigating the practice and interpretation of euphemisms in the theoretical framework of Conceptual Integration Theory.1 Comprehension of Euphemism Euphemisms are common phenomena in hunan language and also strategies of harmonizing interpersonal relationship and smoothing social communication.The comprehension of euphemism is very significant. 1.1 Definition of euphemism:a linguistic conceptEuphemism,as a special mode of expression,comes from the Greek; "eu" means "good" and "pheme" means "speech" or "saying", and thus means literally "to speak with the good words or in a pleasant manner"1 .And it has been defined differently in different books,dictionaries and by different scholars.There are some definitions cited as follows:    1) A polite,tactful or less explicit term used to avoid the direct naming of an unplasant painful of frightening reality.     2) Substitution,restraint,softened expression,mock modesty,metaphorical speech,verbal extenuation,word in verbal good taste,over delicacy of speech, affected refinement of language.     3) Substitution of an agreeable or inoffensive expression for one that may offend or suggest something unpleasant.      4) (an example of)the use of a pleasanter,less direct name for something ought to be unpleasant.      5) Substitution of mild or vague or roundabout expression for harsh or blunt or direct one.     6) A polite word or expression that people use when they are talking about something which they or other people find unpleasant or embarrassing,such as death or sex.     7) Used as an alternative to a dispreffered expression,in order to avoid possible loss of face:either one's own face or,through giving offense,that of the audience,or of some third party 2.Though scholars define"euphemism" differently from various perspectives,all the definitions share the basic idea:euphemism is an indirect roundabout and polite mode of expression used to mean something unpleasant. In communication,it can make the unpleasant things sound better,and make people feel good;it can also ensure both the speaker and the hearer safe without losing face and comfortable at mutual presence. Euphemism is characterized by avoidance language and evasive expression: the speaker uses words as a protective shield against the anger or disapproval of natural or supernatural beings,and in short,it can be described as"expression that seeks to avoid being offenssive". 1.2 Function and Motives of Euphemism D. J. Enright3 says "without euphemisms the world would grind, unveiled, to a halt, universal animosity covering all". Though criticized by many people as "weasel word", "gilded words", "double speak", or even "language of deceit" 4, the important role of euphemisms in communication is irreplaceable. The function and motives of euphemism fall into the following two ways. 1.2.1 Substitution of taboo words The word taboo was first used by Captain James Cook in 1977 in his journal. He heard the word from the speakers of Tongan, a Polynesian language. It referred originally to persons, activities(including speech), or things under prohibition. After it was borrowed into English, it acquired in addition .to 'dangerous' or 'sacred', the sense 'avoided or banned by social custom on grounds of morality or taste' 5. To violate the taboo would automatically cause harm to the violator or the fellows. However, many of taboos are avoided because their use is regarded as distasteful within a given social context: they are dispreferred, not because of any fear that physical or metaphysical harm may befall either speaker or hearer, but because of losing face by offending hearer's sensibilities. Some speakers would claim that it would offend their own sensibilities to utter the taboo terms because of the supposed unpleasantness or ugliness of the taboo terms themselves. Social taboos in most English-speaking communities stretch from those on bodily effluvia, productive processes, and the associated body-parts. In order to mention or talk about the taboo matters, euphemisms are employed as substitute for taboo words which often result in anxiety, embarrassment, and public shame. Euphemistic words and expressions allow us to talk about unpleasant things and "neutralize" the unpleasantness. They also allow us to give labels to unpleasant tasks and jobs in an attempt to make them sound almost attractive".As W. D. Redfern says: "euphemism provides a way of speaking about the unspeakable. It falls midway between transparent discourse and total prohibition. It is the would-be safe area of language, constrained by decorum." 6 “Taboo is the main psychological basis of the emergence of euphemism. Euphemism is the avoidance of the unpleasant, inelegant things. A famous sociolinguist Mr. Chen Yuan once said: Generally speaking, the coming into being of euphemism all begins from taboo. From the origin of euphemism, we can see that taboo is the first function of euphemism. Euphemism has been using for a long time, and it is closely related to taboo. In fact, euphemism dates back to the language taboo in the early period of human civilization. When people try to avoid and give up taboo words, they have to find another word to replace this vacancy at the same time. Hence, people created euphemism.” There are some taboo things, such as birth, death, funeral, sex, nakedness, defecation, and urinate. If they are expressed directly, they are called taboo words and the feelings they give us are vulgar, crude and harsh, whereas if they are expressed indirectly, they are called euphemism, and the impressions they made on us are elegant, implicit and polite. The evading function of euphemism also works today. Some taboo notions cannot be easily removed from peoples mind. Though science and technology are highly developed today, the word “death” is the taboo words to all nations. Thus there are a lot of euphemisms related with it. “Such as pass away, answer the final call, be asleep in Jesus, be safe in the arms of Jesus, be at rest, be called to God, be home and free, be in Abrahams bosom, cross the River Jordan, final sleep, go home, go to meet ones maker, go to ones own place, join ones ancestors, join the great majority, return to dust, with God, be no longer with us, pay the debt of nature, tick the bucket, etc.” “Among those, one-way-ticket is the synonym of die. It reflects the speakers experience of life. Life is just like travel. People set out to travel, but when they arrive to the termination, they cannot go back. In the past, people often used graveyard to express the place where the dead sleep peacefully. But the associations it gives us are horrified and gloomy. So now, people use funeral home and memorial park to replace them. In such a way, it comforts people.” 1.2.2 Strategic use of languageSome euphemisms are alternatives for expressions speaker would simply prefer not to use in executing a particular communicative intention on a given occasion or set of occasions. Some euphemisms are motivated by pretentiousness, and others are vaguely deceptive.Davies holds that "sensitively and carefully chosen euphemisms can serve to smooth conservation and help to keep controversy relational and polite" 7. For example, After careful consideration we have regretfully concluded that your manuscript falls outside the scope of our current publishing program, is what publishers write when they mean "we don't want to publish your lousy manuscript", we'll have to let you go replaces "you've been fired" 9.In the areas of education, commerce, politics and military affairs, euphemisms used as strategy of language are especially popular. In the United States, there are many euphemisms associated with. the government's activities, as the following remarks showed by Stefan Kanfer: Euphemisms are to the tongue lvhat Novocain is to the gums. In the hearings, criminality is given scores of nurnbing disguises. For intelligence-gathering operations read "breaking and entering”for plumbers read "burglars".The two functions of euphemisms indicate that to speak euphemistically is to use language like a shield against the feared, the disliked and the unpleasant. Euphemisms are motivated by the desire not to be offensive, and so they have positive connotations.The two functions of euphemisms also indicate the motives for euphemizing:(1) fear and a desire to placate the mysterious forces that rule the universe were probably the original motives for euphemizing. In diluted and subtler forms, these underlying impulses are still with us today; we lard our sentences with expressions like knock on wood without ever thinking that we do so to avert evil. We are subject to other varieties of fear as well. Afraid to