员工培训讲义公差与配合知识.doc
员工培训讲义(第二课)第二讲 公差与配合知识及应用2.1基本知识2.1.1 基本概念2.1.1.1什么叫误差零件的形状实际尺寸与理想形状尺寸之差叫误差。2.1.1.2什么叫偏差单个零件加工后的实际尺寸与设计给定的基本尺寸(也叫公称尺寸)之差叫偏差。2.1.1.3什么叫公差某一基本尺寸一批零件(2个)加工尺寸允许变动范围。2.1.2极限制经标准化的公差和偏差制度叫极限制。2.1.2.1标准公差标准公差由国家标准来规定。国家标准GB/T1800.3-1998规定了我国标准公差,共分20个等级,表示为IT01,IT0,IT1,IT2,IT18。就是说同一尺寸,有20级公差等级。公差值愈小,尺寸精度愈高;公差值愈大,尺寸精度愈低。2.1.2.2基本偏差为了确定公差带相对零线的位置,将上、下偏差中的某一偏差规定为基本偏差。一般为靠近零线的那个偏差。国家规定孔和轴分别有28种基本偏差,用英文字母表示,大写字母表示孔,小写字母表示轴。基本偏差系列中,代号是“H” 的孔叫基准孔,其下偏差为基准偏差而且等于0;代号是“h” 的轴叫基准轴,其上偏差为基准偏差而且等于0。2.1.2.3公差带代号及极限偏差的确定 公差带代号由基本偏差代号(字母)和标准公差等级(数字)组成。如H8,f7,K7,s6。有了代号就可查有关轴和孔公差带的极限偏差的各种表格,可直接查出上下偏差。(也可根据上述公式进行计算)2.1.3.配合2.1.3.1配合的定义和种类2.1.3.1.1配合基本尺寸相等的相互结合的孔和轴公差带之间的关系。2.1.3.1.2间隙配合具有间隙(包括最小间隙等于0)的配合。(孔比轴大)2.1.3.1.3过盈配合具有过盈(包括最小过盈等于0)的配合。(孔比轴小)2.1.3.1.4过渡配合可能具有间隙或过盈的配合。过渡配合中,孔与轴的公差带相互交叠。2.1.3.2配合制2.1.3.2.1基孔制配合:以一定的孔的公差带为基本偏差,与不同基本偏差的轴的公差带形成的各种配合的制度。孔以H为标记。2.1.3.2.2基轴制配合:以一定的轴的公差带为基本偏差,与不同基本偏差的孔的公差带形成的各种配合的制度。轴以h为标记。2.1.3.2.3混合制配合:上两种配合混合而成,如常用的H7/h6,H8/h7。2.1.3.3配合的代号采用分数形式表示,分子是孔的公差带,分母是轴的公差带,写在尺寸之后。2.2 配合尺寸的查找与选用(请参阅设计手册第一册)2.2.1 举例: 下图是日本FLHF240挂车车轴一端的有关尺寸 图中60 0 -0.074 表示是基轴制,h9级,其上偏差为0,下偏差为-0.074; 75 0 -0.05 表示是基轴制,h8级,上偏差0,下偏差-0.05;(h875 0 -0.046) 50 -0.017 -0.042 表示是基轴制,f6级f7,上偏差-0.017,下偏差为-0.042; ( f6,50 -0.025 -0.042;f7,50-0.025 -0.050)它与双列滚子轴承配合,内圈固定轴上。2.2.2配合的选用2.2.2.1 优先配合的选择见表1。表1 优先配合的选择优先配合装配方法配合特性及应用基孔制基轴制H11/c11C11/h11手轻推进间隙非常大的配合。用于装配方便转动很慢很松的配合H9/d9D9/h9间隙很大的自由转动配合。用于精度非主要要求,或温度变动大,高速或大轴径压力时H8/f7F8/h7手推滑进间隙不大的转动配合。用于速度及轴径均为中等的精确转动;也用于中等精度的定位配合。H7/g6G7/h6手旋进间隙很小的转动配合。用于要求自由转动、精确定位时H7/h6 H8/h7H9/h9 H11/h11加油后用手旋进间隙定位配合,最小间隙为0。零件可自由装拆,而工作时时一般相对静止不动。H7/k6K7/h6手锤轻轻打入过渡配合。用于精密定位H7/n6N7/h6压力机压入过渡配合。允许有较大过盈的更精密定位H7/p6P7/h6过盈定位配合,即小过盈配合H7/s6S7/h6压力机压入或温差法中等压入配合。用于一般钢件或薄壁件的冷缩配合。用于铸铁可得到最紧密的配合。H7/u6U7/h6温差法压入配合。用于受高压力的零件。2.2.2.2 配合选用原则2.2.2.2.1 配合要根据零件的功能,负荷的轻重,运行定位的精度,装配方式,检查维修难易和零件的材质来确定;2.2.2.2.2 一般零件按上述的表1来选择。,设计手册中的“黑体字”就是优先选用的偏差值。2.2.2.2.3 滚动轴承与轴和外壳的配合应根据GB/T275-93标准去选择。简介如下: 滚动轴承与轴的配合 正常负荷j5,m6,n6,p6; 重负荷n6,p6,r6,r7.滚动轴承与外壳的配合正常负荷H7,J7,K7,M7; 重负荷K7,M7,N7,P7.2.3表面粗糙度的选择和机加工达到的粗糙度2.3.1表面粗糙度的选择根据配合表面的公差精度等级选择(见表2).表2 常用工作表面粗糙度数值的选择m表面类型公差精度等级表面基本尺寸5050500配合表面5轴/孔0.2/0.40.4/0.86轴/孔0.4/0.40.80.8/0.81.67轴/孔0.40.8/0.80.81.6/1.68轴/孔0.8/0.81.61.6/1.63.2滑动轴承表面69轴/孔0.40.8/0.81.6液体润滑0.10.4/0.20.81012轴/孔0.83.2/1.63.2液压油缸活塞表面表面高压普通压低压直径1010轴/孔0.025/0.050.05/0.10.1/0.20.2/.4键结合不动结合工作面1.63.2非工作面6.312.5导向键工作面待添加的隐藏文字内容21.63.2非工作面6.312.5孔轴非工作面6.312.5螺栓用通孔25准备焊接倒棱50100倒角、倒圆、退刀槽3.212.52.3.2各种加工方法能达到的粗糙度(见表3)表3各种加工方法能达到的粗糙度 m加工方法粗糙度加工方法粗糙度加工方法粗糙度车削外圆粗12.5-6.3钻孔12.5-6.3磨削外圆粗3.2-0.8半精6.3-1.6扩孔粗12.5-6.3半精0.8-0.2精0.8-0.2精3.2-1.6精0.2-0.025端面粗12.5-6.3铰孔粗6.3-1.6平面粗1.6半精6.3-1.6半精1.6-0.4半精30.8-0.4精0.8-0.4精0.8-0.1精0.2-0.025铣削圆周铣粗12.5-3.2拉孔半精1.6-0.4刨削粗50-6.3半精3.2-0.8精0.2-0.1半精3.2-0.8精0.8-0.4镗孔粗12.5-6.3精0.8-0.4端铣粗6.3-3.2半精3.2-0.8研磨粗0.8-0.2半精3.2-0.4精0.8-0.4半精0.2-0.05精0.4-0.2金刚镗孔0.2-0.05精0.05-0.0122.3.3 举例 根据上表可以对日本FLHF240的车轴的几个圆柱面确定粗糙度。 60 0 -0.074,1.60.8;75 0 -0.05,1.60.8;50 -0.017 -0.042,0.40.8。 加工方法要用车削和磨削。2.3.4表面粗糙度的评定参数3.4.1根据GB1013-83,现行表面粗糙度是以Ra的第一系列参数优先选用的. 即50 25 12.5 6.3 3.2 1.6 0.8 0.4 0.2 0.1 0.05 0.025 0.012(m)3.4.2 与原有的光洁度对应值说明.(略)2.4形位公差的应用2.4.1同轴度问题在车架设计中,凡是一根轴上有两个以上的圆柱面就有同轴度的要求。精度不高,可不标注;但对两端要装配轴承的表面一定要标注同轴度要求。例如:下图日本FLHF240半挂车的摆动轴图样在我国应有同轴度要求,查表应为0.04,并如图标注;而且,对于棒料的线性长度200,要提出直线度要求。 因为有没有这些要求,加工工艺不一样。没有这些要求,在车削、磨削时,可以来回掉头车磨各圆柱面,尽管各面加工精度很高,达到要求,但不同心,装配后两端轴承因此不在同一轴线而较大跳动。有了直线度要求,一般第一道工序就是用压力机校直,以免加工余量不够;有了同轴度要求,就只能一次装夹,加工出各圆柱面,一般采取两端先打中心孔,用顶尖顶住两端,进行车削和磨削,保证同一轴线;或采取一夹一顶加工。2.4.2 位置度、对称度的问题在车架设计中,凡是一个平面上有2个孔,就有这些要求。精度不高,可不标注;但对于影响零件装配,一定要标注位置度、对称度要求。对于横梁上的孔一般都要以中心线对称,不要从两端标注尺寸。质量检验科就发现一端销子装不上,查图纸,就是尺寸标注不对。对于纵梁或侧板上的孔,从设计者角度看,最好提出位置度要求。2.4.3 平行度、直线度的问题在车架设计中,凡是有2个导向面、有导向孔的,就要提出平行度、直线度要求。2.5 未注公差和未注形位公差2.5.1未注公差线性尺寸未注公差(一般公差,或general tolerance)(见表4) 国家标准GB/T1804对线性尺寸的一般公差分为4个等级。1.精密级,用f表示;2.中等级,用m表示;3.粗糙级,用c表示;4.最粗级,用v表示。机械加工的零件,图样上未注公差的尺寸一般按“中等级 m”掌握。我厂制定的未注公差标准是“最粗级v级”。因此在设计零件时,要根据零件的配合精度和使用场合,选择是否要标注极限偏差,如果未注公差能达不到要求,就必须标注所要求的公差。也不要认为原来就是一个未注公差尺寸,作为设计者,应校核一下;如果未注公差能达到要求,就不必标注。表4 线性尺寸一般公差的极限偏差数值 mm公差等级尺寸分段0.3-33-66-3030-120120-400400-10001000-2000f.精密级±0.05±0.05±0.1±0.15±0.2±0.3±0.5m中等级±0.1±0.1±0.2±0.3±0.5±0.8±1.2c粗糙级±0.2±0.3±0.5±0.8±1.2±2±3v最粗级-±0.5±1±1.5±2.5±4±62.5.2 未注形位公差国家标准GB/T1184-1996对未注形位公差规定从小到大分为H、K、L三个等级。我厂采取未注形位公差是“L级”。 2008.7.31员工培训讲义(第三课)第三讲 尺寸标注和技术要求事项3.1 尺寸标注3.1.1尺寸标注基本要求正确、完整、清晰、合理。 尺寸的正确性和完整性不必多说,尺寸的清晰性要注意,文字大小要统一,标注位置不要挤在一起,或重叠,要尽量分布均匀。 零件图尺寸的合理性是指所注尺寸应符合设计要求和工艺要求。所谓设计要求,指零件按规定的装配基准正确装配后,应保证零件在装配体中获得准确的预定位置、必要的配合性质、规定的运动条件或要求的连接形式,从而保证产品的工作性能和装配精确度。所谓工艺要求,是指零件在加工过程中要便于加工制造。3.1.2主要尺寸的确定3.1.2.1 参与装配尺寸链的尺寸 如半挂车牵引销、车桥的位置尺寸等;3.1.2.2 与其他零件构成的配合尺寸 悬挂的位置及其相互关系尺寸等(它与板簧构成装配关系),还有插桩和各种定位销等; 3.1.2.3 重要的定位尺寸 如底板的高度等;3.1.2.4 与其他零件配对连接的定位尺寸 如牵引销中心线到左右纵梁距离之差3等。3.1.3 尺寸基准的选择原则 尺寸基准就是标注度量尺寸的起点。它有主基准和副基准。主基准的选择应符合零件的设计要求和工艺要求。从设计基准出发,反映了设计要求,保证了零件在机体中的工作性能;从工艺基准出发,反映了工艺要求,使零件便于加工、测量和检验。副基准是不太重要的尺寸的从中间其他尺寸的尾端标注起点。3.1.3.1 零件的长、宽、高方向,每一方向至少有一个尺寸基准。例如:半挂车纵梁长度方向应以左端作为基准,而且是主基准,几乎所有尺寸都要从此标注起。不要从中间其他尺寸的尾端标注起,这样基准就变了,还导致累积误差。对于个别不太重要的尺寸允许选择副基准进行标注。对于横梁前面说过要选其对称中心线作为主基准;高度方向以底面为主基准。这一条大家必须高度重视。3.1.3.2 决定零件在装配体中的理论位置可选为主基准。例如:日本FLHF240挂车的前悬挂零件,就是以最下部孔的中心线作为主基准,侧面上各孔及端面位置都是从此标注起。中间70管子孔中心为31.5X100,上边锥套孔中心为31.5X250,右边小孔16的中心是(103X160),另外还有尺寸306,184,342,85等也以此为准。3.1.3.3 应尽量使设计基准与工艺基准重合。对于工艺基准有粗基准和精基准。例如:有一立方体,各面距离为50+0.05 -0.05,这就要备料,或铸、锻,或锯坯料,均会留余量35,就要选一个面作为底面夹紧,先粗铣出一面作为粗基准,精铣出底面,再以精铣出的面作为精基准,精铣出粗铣的一面。(在铣的过程中,注意留有足够的余量)车回转体外圆面时,开始加工的第一面也是作为粗基准的。对于以平面作为设计基准就要和工艺基准重合。在设计日本FLHF240挂车的前、中悬挂零件的工装模具时,就是以悬挂正面的对称中心线为设计基准,加工、测量、检验的工艺基准也以悬挂正面的对称中心线,两个基准重合。3.1.4 尺寸标注的其他问题3.1.4.1 角度尺寸的标注目前我们下发的设计图纸不统一,有的标注角度值,有的标注正切的两直角边长,(前两项担心被说成“封闭尺寸”),有的两项值都注上。这次写讲义征求冲压和焊一车间意见,他们提出不同要求,冲压车间要求标注折弯和下料角度,焊一车间要求提出有两直角边长,最好有斜边长,因为工人文化水平不高,有的不会计算,有时候下短了料,既浪费了料,又耽误了工夫。另外根据我们电脑CAD 作图,其角度值一般只精确度到1°,约有±0.5°的误差。我通过画图测量,角度值为0.5°,线段长度500时,其高度值有误差4.36,长度是1000,就差8.73,因此标注角度一种方法精确到 “”,或精确到“0.1°”,但这样就麻烦了,而且也没有实际意义;另一种方法在角度值加括号(35°)作为参考值。根据上述分析,建议对角度尺寸的标注作统一规定:有关零件的折弯角度、斜撑角度或其他角度等均以“整数角度值加括号”的参考尺寸标注,而与此相应的直角三角形的任意两边以“毫米整数值”的实际尺寸标注。3.1.4.2 关于封闭尺寸问题 从审核图纸中,发现如挡泥板上各孔距尺寸就是封闭尺寸,可能原来图纸就是这样,一直借用至今,而且还有其他一些图纸。开始我一般在其他一个尺寸加()作参考尺寸,后来就见怪不怪不改了,希望大家发现此问题要改过来,自己设计时,认为各尺寸都重要,一定选尺寸链中一个不太重要的尺寸作为参考尺寸,不要犯“作成封闭尺寸链”的低级错误。3.1.4.3 前横梁7芯插座安装孔距尺寸此两孔之间距离尺寸应为74+0.5 0,原来图纸尺寸是73,这是在工装普查中检查出来的。望注意改过来。3.2 图样上的“技术要求”3.2.1 举例:日本FLHF240 滚动轴的图样上有如下三条技术要求:“1.焊丝和要焊接的零件,要预热(约200);特别注意下侧不能有焊瘤;焊接时,先预热,焊接后加热,再保温冷却。2.坯料要淬火后回火 HB390409 3.画线部分高频感应淬火 硬度HRC 5060,深3”3.2.2 焊接预热、后热退火问题上述第一条就是焊接预热后热问题。对于低碳钢(含碳量0.25%)与低碳钢可在常温下焊接,中碳钢(含碳量0.25%0.55%)与低碳钢在常温下焊接尚可,但在冬天不可,最好预热后焊接。这里用的是45#钢,必须把工件和焊条预热到约200,再焊接。否则就会产生裂纹。而且焊接后如果在空气在冷却会出现焊接内应力。为了取消焊接应力,要进行“去应力退火”,一般要工件加热到500600,保温一定时间,随炉缓慢冷却到200再出炉空冷。3.2.3 钢件热处理淬火回火问题3.2.3.1 调质处理 45#钢(包括中碳钢)加热铁-碳合金相图的AC3或AC1以上3050(840),保温一定时间,先在水中“淬火”,此时硬度59HRC,接着进行“高温回火”,把淬火钢加热到AC1以下,温度范围是500650,保温一定时间,然后以一定的冷却方式(炉冷或空冷),其硬度能达到2233HRC。设计图纸中,国内对45#钢机加工“技术要求”一般第一条就是“调质处理 2328HRC,或235265HB”,这是一方面使内部组织结构细化匀化,另一方面是便于机加工切削,因为国内刀具的切削能力,是高速钢刀具,其硬度范围大多数在此数值之间。3.2.3.2 中温回火 45#钢(包括中碳钢)加热铁-碳合金相图的AC3或AC1以上3050(840),保温一定时间,然后在水中“淬火”,此时硬度59HRC,接着进行“中温回火”,把淬火钢加热到AC1以下,保温一定时间,然后以一定的冷却方式(炉冷或空冷),温度范围是350500,硬度能达到4050HRC。日本FLHF240 滚动轴的图样上的第二条就是“中温回火”,其硬度值HB390409,相当欲HRC4244,可能日本刀具大多数是合金钢刀头,其切削能力工件硬度在4245之间。从现在看到的日本45#钢的坯料处理都是“中温回火”。 除了“高温回火、中温回火”外,还有“低温回火”,把淬火钢加热到AC1以下,温度范围是150250,保温一定时间,然后以一定的冷却方式(炉冷或空冷),硬度能达到5864HRC,主要用于工具、量具、模具、滚动轴承等3.2.3.3感应加热表面淬火 原理是将工件放在铜管绕制的感应圈内,当感应圈通过一定频率的电流时,感应圈内部和周围产生同频率的交变磁场使得工件中相应产生频率相同、方向相反的感应电流,感应电流在工件表面自成回路,从而使工件表面迅速被加热到淬火温度,一般只要10多秒钟,随后立即降落到淬火液中,或立即喷水冷却。工件变形小,耐磨,不易氧化,淬火深度容易控制。 高频加热淬火(200300kHz)淬火深度 0.53;这就是日本FLHF240 滚动轴的技术要求第三条; 中频加热淬火(2.58 kHz);超音频加热淬火 (2240 kHz); 工频加热淬火 (50Hz),淬火深度可达 1015。3.3 图纸上的其他问题3.3.1 凡是机加工零件每个尺寸都应有粗糙度符号,除了在视图中对要求较高粗糙度标注外,还应在图纸右上角标注“其余 粗糙度符号”。3.3.2 对于表面处理标注内容要齐全。如镀锌,是镀白锌、黄锌、还是彩锌,镀层厚度,一般58m;对于低碳钢为增加表面硬度和耐磨性,是渗碳,渗氮,还是碳氮共渗,其硬度和深度均要注明。3.3.3 对于视图的比例,如有正确的值可明确标注;一般不要标注,因为现在为使零件的视图能放到A3或A4图纸里,视图要多次缩放,其比例值就说不清了,所以只能以标注的实际尺寸为准,不能量图上值和比例来算尺寸。 Winger Tuivasa-Sheck, who scored two tries in the Kiwis' 20-18 semi-final win over England, has been passed fit after a lower-leg injury, while Slater has been named at full-back but is still recovering from a knee injury aggravated against USA.Both sides boast 100% records heading into the encounter but Australia have not conceded a try since Josh Charnley's effort in their first pool match against England on the opening day.Aussie winger Jarryd Hayne is the competition's top try scorer with nine, closely followed by Tuivasa-Sheck with eight.But it is recently named Rugby League International Federation player of the year Sonny Bill Williams who has attracted the most interest in the tournament so far.The Kiwi - with a tournament high 17 offloads - has the chance of becoming the first player to win the World Cup in both rugby league and rugby union after triumphing with the All Blacks in 2011."I'd give every award back in a heartbeat just to get across the line this weekend," said Williams.The (lack of) air up there Watch mCayman Islands-based Webb, the head of Fifa's anti-racism taskforce, is in London for the Football Association's 150th anniversary celebrations and will attend City's Premier League match at Chelsea on Sunday."I am going to be at the match tomorrow and I have asked to meet Yaya Toure," he told BBC Sport."For me it's about how he felt and I would like to speak to him first to find out what his experience was."Uefa has opened disciplinary proceedings against CSKA for the "racist behaviour of their fans" during City's 2-1 win.Michel Platini, president of European football's governing body, has also ordered an immediate investigation into the referee's actions.CSKA said they were "surprised and disappointed" by Toure's complaint. In a statement the Russian side added: "We found no racist insults from fans of CSKA." Baumgartner the disappointing news: Mission aborted.The supersonic descent could happen as early as Sunda.The weather plays an important role in this mission. Starting at the ground, conditions have to be very calm - winds less than 2 mph, with no precipitation or humidity and limited cloud cover. The balloon, with capsule attached, will move through the lower level of the atmosphere (the troposphere) where our day-to-day weather lives. It will climb higher than the tip of Mount Everest (5.5 miles/8.85 kilometers), drifting even higher than the cruising altitude of commercial airliners (5.6 miles/9.17 kilometers) and into the stratosphere. As he crosses the boundary layer (called the tropopause),e can expect a lot of turbulence.The balloon will slowly drift to the edge of space at 120,000 feet ( Then, I would assume, he will slowly step out onto something resembling an Olympic diving platform.They blew it in 2008 when they got caught cold in the final and they will not make the same mistake against the Kiwis in Manchester.Five years ago they cruised through to the final and so far history has repeated itself here - the last try they conceded was scored by England's Josh Charnley in the opening game of the tournament.That could be classed as a weakness, a team under-cooked - but I have been impressed by the Kangaroos' focus in their games since then.They have been concentrating on the sort of stuff that wins you tough, even contests - strong defence, especially on their own goal-line, completing sets and a good kick-chase. They've been great at all the unglamorous stuff that often goes unnoticed in the stands but not by your team-mates.It is as though their entire tournament has been preparation for the final.In Johnathan Thurston, Cooper Cronk, Cameron Smith and either Billy Slater or Greg Inglis at full-back they have a spine that is unmatched in rugby league. They have played in so many high-pressure games - a priceless asset going into Saturday.The Kiwis are a lot less experienced but winning a dramatic match like their semi-final against England will do wonders for their confidence.They defeated Australia in the Four Nations final in 2010 and the last World Cup, and know they can rise to the big occasion.Winger Tuivasa-Sheck, who scored two tries in the Kiwis' 20-18 semi-final win over England, has been passed fit after a lower-leg injury, while Slater has been named at full-back but is still recovering from a knee injury aggravated against USA.Both sides boast 100% records heading into the encounter but Australia have not conceded a try since Josh Charnley's effort in their first pool match against England on the opening day.Aussie winger Jarryd Hayne is the competition's top try scorer with nine, closely followed by Tuivasa-Sheck with eight.But it is recently named Rugby League International Federation player of the year Sonny Bill Williams who has attracted the most interest in the tournament so far.The Kiwi - with a tournament high 17 offloads - has the chance of becoming the first player to win the World Cup in both rugby league and rugby union after triumphing with the All Blacks in 2011."I'd give every award back in a heartbeat just to get across the line this weekend," said Williams.The (lack of) air up there Watch mCayman Islands-based Webb, the head of Fifa's anti-racism taskforce, is in London for the Football Association's 150th anniversary celebrations and will attend City's Premier League match at Chelsea on Sunday."I am going to be at the match tomorrow and I have asked to meet Yaya Toure," he told BBC Sport."For me it's about how he felt and I would like to speak to him first to find out what his experience was."Uefa has opened disciplinary proceedings against CSKA for the "racist behaviour of their fans" during City's 2-1 win.Michel Platini, president of European football's governing body, has also ordered an immediate investigation into the referee's actions.CSKA said they were "surprised and disappointed" by Toure's complaint. In a statement the Russian side added: "We found no racist insults from fans of CSKA." Baumgartner the disappointing news: Mission aborted.The supersonic descent