武汉大学研究生英语课文原文 Stumbling Blocks in Intercultural Communication.docx

武汉大学研究生英语课文原文 Stumbling Blocks in Intercultural CommunicationStumbling Blocks inIntercultural Communication 1. Why is it that contact with persons from other cultures is so often frustrating and fraught with misunderstanding? Good intentions, the use of what one considers to be a friendly approach and even the possibility of mutual benefits don't seem to be sufficient to ensure success-to many people's surprise. Sometimes rejection occurs just because the group to which a person belongs is"different." It's appropriate at this time of major changes in the international scene to take a look at some of the reasons for the disappointing results of attempts at communication. They are actually stumbling blocks in intercultural communication. 2. Assumption of similarities One answer to the question of why misunderstanding or rejection happens might be that many of us naivety assume there are sufficient similarities among peoples of the world to enable us tosuccessfully exchange information or feelings, solve problems ofmutual concerns, cement business relationships, or just make the kind of impression we wish to make. The tendency for all peopleto reproduce, group into families or societies, develop a language, and adapt to their environment is particularly deceiving because it leads to the expectation that the forms of these behaviors and the attitudes and values surrounding them will also besimilar. It's comforting to believe that"people are people"and"deep down we're all alike,"but a determined search for proof of this leads to disappointment. 3. Promising are the cross-cultural studies seeking to supportDarwin's theory that facial expressions are universal and researchers found that the particular visible pattern on the face, the combination of muscles contracted for anger, fear, surprise, sadness, disgust, and happiness is the same for allmembers of ourspecies, but this seems helpful until it is realized that a persons cultural upbringing determines whether or notthat emotion will be displayed or suppressed, as well as on which occasions and to what degree. The situations that bring about the emotional feeling also differ from culture to culture, for example, the death of a loved one may be a cause for joy, sorrow, or some other emotion, depending upon the accepted cultural belief. 4. Since there seems to be no universals of “human nature” that can be used as a basis for automatic understanding, we must treat each encounter as an individual case, searching for whatever perceptions and communication means are held in common and proceed from there. If we realize that we are all culture bound andculturally modified, we will accept the fact that, being unlike, wedo not reallyknow what someone else"is." 5. The aura of similarity is a serious stumbling block to successful intercultural communication. A look-alike facade is deceiving when representatives from contrasting cultures meet, eachwearing Western dress, speaking English, and using similar greeting rituals. It is like assuming that New York, Tokyo, and Tehran are all alike because each has the appearance of a moderncity. Without being alert to possible differences and the needto learn new rules for functioning, persons going from one city tothe other will be in immediatetrouble, even when acting simple roles such as pedestrian and driver. 6. Theconfidence that goes with the myth of similarity is much more comfortable than the assumption of differences, the latter requiring tentative assumptions and behaviors and a willingness toaccept the anxiety of"not knowing."Only with the assumptionof differences, however, can reactions and interpretations be adjusted to fit"what's happening."Otherwise someone is likely tomisread signs and judge the sceneethnocentrically. 7. The stumbling block of assumedsimilarity is a “troublem,”as one English learner expressed it, not only for the foreigner but for the people in the host country with whom the internationalvisitor comes into contact. The native inhabitants are likely to be lulled into the expectation that, since the foreign person isdressed appropriately and speak some of the language, he or she will also have similar nonverbal codes, thoughts and feelings. Thus, nodding, smiling, and affirmative comment will probably be confidentlyinterpreted as meaning that they have informed,helped, and pleased the newcomer. It is likely, however, that theforeigner actually understood very little of the verbal and nonverbal content and was merely indicating polite interest or trying not to embarrass himself or herself of the host with verbalized questions. 8. Language Difference The second stumbling block is so obvious that it hardly needs mentioning-language. Vocabulary, syntax, idioms, slang, dialects, and so on all cause difficulty, but the person strugglingwith a different language is at least aware of being in this kind oftrouble. A worse language problem is thetenacity with whichsomeone will cling to just one meaning of a word or phrase in thenew language, regardless of connotation or context. The variations in possible meaning, especially if inflection and tonal qualities are added, are so difficult to cope with that they are oftenwaved aside. The reason this problem is worse than simple struggling to translate foreign words is because each person thinks heor she understands. The nationwide misinterpretation of Khrushchev's sentence "We'll bury you" is a classic example.Even"yes"and"no"could cause trouble. When a Japanesehears,"Won't you have some tea?"he or she listens to the literalmeaning of the sentence and answers,"No."Meaning that he orshe wants some."Yes, I won't"would be a better reply becausethis tips off the host or hostess that there may be a misunderstanding. Also, in some culture, it is polite to refuse the first or second offer of refreshment. Many foreign guests have gone hungry because their US host or hostess never presented the thirdofferanother case of “no"meaning"yes." 9. Nonverbal misinterpretations Learning the language, which most visitors to foreign countries consider their only barrier to understanding, is actually onlythe beginning. The third stumbling block is nonverbal misinterpretations. People from different cultures inhabit different sensory realities. They see, hear, feel, and smell only that which has some meaning or importance for them. They abstract whatever fits into their personal world of recognition and then interpret itthrough the frame of reference of their own culture. For example, a Saudi Arab would nonverbally signal that he liked a girl by smoothing back his hair, which to an American girl would be justa common nervous gesture signifying noting. 10. The lack of comprehension ofnonverbal signs and symbols that are easy to observe-such as gestures, postures, and otherbody movements-is a definite communication barrier. But it is possible to learn the meanings of these observable messages, usually in informal rather than formal ways. It is more difficult tonote correctly the unspoken codes of the other culture that are further from awareness, such as the handling of time and spatialrelationships and subtle signs of respect of formality. 11. The Presence of Preconceptions and Stereotypes The fourth stumbling block is the presence of preconceptions and stereotypes. If the label"inscrutable"has preceded the Japanese guest, it is thus we explain the Japanese constant and inappropriate smile. The stereotype that Arabs are"inflammable”may cause the US students to keep their distance or even alert authorities when an animated and noisy group from the Middle Eastgathers. A professor who expects everyone from Indonesia,Mexico, and many other countries to"bargain"may unfairly interpret a hesitation or request from an international student as amove to manipulate preferential treatment. 12. Stereotypes help do what Ernest Becker says the anxiety-prone human race must do-reduce the threat of the unknownby making the world predictable. Indeed, this is one of the basicfunctions of culture: to lay out a predictable world in which the individual is firmly oriented. Stereotypes are overgeneralized, secondhand beliefs that provide conceptual bases from which to"make sense"out of what goes on around us, whether or not they are accurate or fit the circumstances. In a foreign land theiruse increases our feeling of security and is psychologically necessary to the degree that we cannot tolerate ambiguity or the senseof helplessness resulting from inability to understand and dealwith people and situations beyond our comprehension. 13. Stereotypes are stumbling blocks for communicators becausethey interfere with objective viewing of stimuli-the sensitivesearch for cues to guide the imagination toward the other persons' reality. Stereotypes are not easy to overcome in ourselves or tocorrect in others, even with the presentation of evidence. Theypersist because they are firmly established as myths or truisms byone's own national culture and because they sometimesrationalize prejudices. They are also sustained and fed by the tendency toperceive selectively only those pieces of new information that correspond to the image held. 14. ThePractice ofImmediate Evaluation The fifth stumbling block and another deterrent to understanding between persons of differing cultures or ethnic groups isthe tendency to evaluate, to approve or disapprove, the statements and actions of the other person or group. Rather than to try to comprehend completely the thoughts and feelings expressedfrom the world view of the other, we assume our own culture or way of life always seems right, proper, and natural. This biasprevents the open-minded attention needed to look at the attitudes and behavior patterns from the others point of view. 15. Fresh from a conference in Tokyo where Japanese professorshad emphasized the preference the people of Japan for simple natural settings of rocks, moss, and water and misty landscapes, I visited the Katsura Imperial Gardens in Kyoto. At the appointedtime of the tour a young Japanese guide approached the group of20 waiting Americans and remarked how fortunate it was that theday was cloudy. This brought hesitant smiles to the group whowere less than pleased with the prospect of a shower. The guide'snext statement was that the timing of the midsummer visit wasparticularly appropriate in that the azalea and rhododendron blossoms were gone and the trees had not yet turned totheir brilliant, fall colors. The group laughed loudly now convincedtime the young man had a line sense of humor. I winced at his bewildered expression, realizing that had I come before attendingthe conference I, also evaluating the weather as"not very good,"would have shared the group's inference that he could not be serious. 16. Communication cutoff caused by immediate evaluation is heightened when feelings and emotions are deeply involved; yetthis is just the time when listening with understanding is mostneeded. Look and listen empathetically rather than through thethick screen of value judgments that impede a fair understanding. 17. High Anxiety High anxiety or tension is common in cross-cultural experiences due to the number of uncertainties present and the personalinvolvement and risk. Moderate arousal and positive attitudes prepare one to meet challenges with energy, but high arousal, caused by a buildup of continued moderate stress, depletes thebody's energy reserve quickly and defense must be used whetheror not the person wills it. If the stay in a foreign country is prolonged and the newcomer cannot let down his or her high alertlevel, the"culture shock”phenomenon occurs. Illness may result, the body forcing needed rest and recuperation. 18. Anxious feelings usually permeate both parties in an intercultural dialogue. The host national is uncomfortable when talkingwith a foreigner because he or she cannot maintain the normal flow of verbal and nonverbal interaction. There are language andperception barriers;silences are too long or too short;proxemicand other norms may be violated. He or she is also threatened bythe other's unknown knowledge, experience,and evaluation-the visitor's potential for scrutiny and rejection of the host national and his or her country. The foreign members of dyads are evenmore threatened. They feel strange and vulnerable, helpless to cope with messages that swamp them. Their self-esteem is often intolerably undermined unless they employ such defenses as withdrawal into their own reference group or into themselves, screening out or misperceiving stimuli, or becoming aggressive or hostile. None of these defenses leads to effective communication. 19. Knowing the six stumbling blocks is certainly a help in avoiding them, but these particular ones cannot be easily circumvented. For most people it takes insight, training, and sometimesan alteration of long-standing habit or cherished beliefs beforeprogress can be made. However, the increasing need for globalunderstanding and cooperation makes the effort vital. we canstudy other languages and learn to expect differences in nonverbal forms and other cultural aspects. We can train ourselves to meetintercultural encounters with more attention to situational details,using an investigative approach rather than preconceptions and stereotypes. We can gradually expose ourselves to differences so that they become less threatening. By practicing conscious relaxation techniques, we can also learn to lower our tension levelwhen needed to avoid triggering defensive reactions. Roger Harrison summarizes what the intercultural communicator must seek toachieve: The communicator cannot stop at knowing that the people he is working with have different customs,goals, and though pattern from his own. He must be able to feel his way into intimate contact with these alien values, attitudes, and feelings. He must be able to work with them and within them, neither losing his own values in the confrontation nor protecting himselfbehind a wall of intellectual detachment.