Argument模板构造示例 by 张雷东.docx

Argument模板构造示例 by 张雷东Examples of template construction 1, Selective sample: CHARACTER: to sample only part of sub-groups in the whole general population. SEE ALSO: quantity of the sample, are the respondents representative, changing scopes. BASIC ARCHITECTURE: to point out that the current sample is not randomly selected and could not represent the general group, or that the survey studies only some special groups of subjects and many other sub-groups have been ignored. EXAMPLE: T.S ( pointing out that the current sample is not representative) One major problem is about the sample the author studied in the survey. EXPLANATION: the author considers only(selective sub-groups) CONCESSION: although (the sub-groups the author studied) do constitute a significant part of (the whole general population), however, (many other sub-groups) are actually excluded from the survey. ILLUSTRATIONS: (the conditions/situation of other sub-groups might be quite different) PARAGRAPHIC CONCLUSION: without ruling out all the possibilities above, the author could not make any general conclusion about merely based on (selective sub-groups). 2, Quantity of the sample CHARACTER: the size of the sample is insignificant to be statistically representative. SEE ALSO: selective sample, are the respondents representative, changing scopes. BASIC ARCHITECTURE: to point out that the current sample is not sufficient in size, and might not represent all other sub-groups. EXAMPLE: T.S ( pointing out that the current sample is too small in its size) (the fact cited by the author) could hardly illustrate the assumption that. EXPLANATION: because the author provides only N samples of (the general population), TRANSITION: however, (the limited sample) might not be representative of the whole general group. ILLUSTRATIONS: (the sample is too limited to be representative) PARAGRAPHIC CONCLUSION: thus we cannot accept the authors conclusion that before he/she could provide more statistic data about (the situation of other sub-groups). 3, Do the statistics make any difference: CHARACTER: the purpose or the result of the survey is insignificant in supporting the final conclusion. SEE ALSO: what question was asked in the survey, insufficient evidence. BASIC ARCHITECTURE: to point out that the result of the study could not give support to the final conclusion, or even has nothing to do with the conclusion in some cases. EXAMPLE: T.S ( pointing out that the result of the survey is insignificant) The information provided by the author is insufficient for the author to reach the conclusion. EXPLANATION: the survey only studies the situation of (an(some) insignificant case(s), TRANSITION: however, many other more essential cases (related to the final conclusion) were ignored in the survey. ILLUSTRATIONS: (we need to know the condition of some other cases about which we care more/ the current case studied in the survey makes little sense on the final conclusion, the author should provide some more important information about the case he studied. ) PARAGRAPHIC CONCLUSION: Lacking further studies on these important issues, the author could not hastily conclude that merely based on the insignificant study. 4, What question was asked in the survey: CHARACTER: the question asked in the survey was not directly related to the final conclusion, or the question itself may have some misleading effects. SEE ALSO: do the statistics make any difference, insufficient evidence. BASIC ARCHITECTURE: to point out that there are logical gaps between the question asked in the survey and the final conclusion, or some other critical questions should be asked in the survey. EXAMPLE: T.S ( pointing out that the question asked in the survey is insignificant) Another problem which should be pointed out is the question asked in the survey about. EXPLANATION: merely these questions could not lend strong support to the authors conclusion that ILLUSTRATIONS: (the question has no direct relation to the final conclusion, or some other critical questions should be asked in the survey to get more valuable information. ) PARAGRAPHIC CONCLUSION: For the flaws existed in the survey question, the result cited above could hardly constitute concrete evidence for the conclusion. 5, Who conducted the survey: CHARACTER: the institution who conducted the survey may have vested interest in the result, or it may affect the reliability of the result. BASIC ARCHITECTURE: to point out that the institution may have vested interest in the result and may distort the actual opinions of respondents. EXAMPLE: T.S ( pointing out that the result of the survey may not be reliable because of the institution or individuals who conducted the survey) The reliability of the survey is also open to doubt due to the organization who conducted the survey. EXPLANATION: (the organization) has vested interest in the final decision/conclusion which was based on the result of the survey, and thus might distort the actual answers of the respondents. ILLUSTRATIONS: (the institution/individuals may benefit greatly from the result if the result was interpreted as was currently ) PARAGRAPHIC CONCLUSION: Thus, the author should cite a survey which is conducted by an independent institution to convince us that (the assumption). 6, When was the survey conducted: CHARACTER: the survey was conducted during a special period, or was conducted a long time ago, thus its result could not represent the current or future conditions. SEE ALSO: inferring a future condition from a past condition BASIC ARCHITECTURE: to point out that the result of the survey which was conducted during a special period may not accurately reflect the current trends or opinions. EXAMPLE: T.S ( pointing out that the result of the survey may not be representative of current situation due to the date when the survey was conducted) The effectiveness of the result of the survey cited by the author as main evidence is also open to doubt. EXPLANATION: The survey was conduct (during a special period, or a long time ago), thus may not reflect the current situations accurately. CONCESSION: It is true that ( the survey may reflect the opinions or situations of respondents at the time when it was conducted), TRANSITION: but peoples opinion toward (the subject surveyed) may have changed greatly during the past time (or, while this fact could not sufficiently illustrate that (the general group) will also all the time) ILLUSTRATIONS: (many factors that could influence the validity of the survey will change in the future, or respondents may act differently during the period when the survey was conducted, thus the result of the survey could not represent the all-time situation. ) PARAGRAPHIC CONCLUSION: Thus, a more recent survey, if a survey is needed at all, should be provided to sufficiently illustrate the authors assumption that. 7, Vague data: CHARACTER: the data or information provided in the argument is too vague for us to make thorough and justified evaluation about the actual situation. SEE ALSO: incomplete information BASIC ARCHITECTURE: to point out that the data or information provided by the author is misleadingly vague. We need more accurate data, or in many cases, more information about the base amount or corresponding fraction of the sample in its general group . EXAMPLE: T.S ( pointing out that the data cited in the analysis is too vague) The information concerning is not accurate enough for us to evaluate the actual condition of . 1) lack of base amount: EXPLANATION: The author only informs us that (the percentage/fraction of sub-groups which) TRANSITION: but we do not know the base amount of (the general group) 2) lack of fraction: EXPLANATION: The author only informs us that many/few (sub-groups) TRANSITION: however, we need to know what fraction of (the general group) actually ILLUSTRATIONS: (if the base amount or corresponding fractions vary, the conclusion would be different. ) PARAGRAPHIC CONCLUSION: For lack of detailed information about ( the base amount / fraction of) , we can hardly assess 8,Incomplete information: CHARACTER: the information provided in the argument is incomplete for us to make thorough and justified evaluation about the actual situation. SEE ALSO: vague data, incomplete comparison/selective comparison/ex parte information, confusing comparison and variation, failing to weigh the advantage and disadvantage thoroughly, failing to consider the feasibility of the conclusion, insufficient evidence BASIC ARCHITECTURE: to point out that the information provided by the author is incomplete. We need more accurate information about the cases studied, or some other information that is more pertinent to the cases should be provided to assess the conclusion. EXAMPLE: T.S ( pointing out that the information provided in the analysis is not sufficient for us) The author does not provide complete information concerning in illustrating that EXPLANATION: The author only informs us that TRANSITION: but what we care more about is that, which is not provided by the author. ILLUSTRATIONS: (some other substantial information are needed for us to assess the soundness of the argument, and the conclusion would vary greatly when other conditions varied. ) PARAGRAPHIC CONCLUSION: For lack of detailed information about , we can hardly evaluate 9, Are the respondents forthright when answering the questions: CHARACTER: the respondents may not express their actual feeling or conditions due to some circumstances in which the survey was conducted. SEE ALSO: credibility of the evidence BASIC ARCHITECTURE: to point out that some setting of the procedure of the survey might be improper to obtain true information from respondents, or the respondents might be unwilling to tell the truth about what they have been asked for some reason. EXAMPLE: T.S ( pointing out that the information provided by the respondents might be inaccurate or misleading) The reliability of the respondents answers to the surveys question is not sufficiently justified to support the conclusion EXPLANATION: There is possibility that the respondents may not tell the truth about ILLUSTRATIONS: (answering the questions honestly may lead to some undesirable consequences for the respondents, thus they may evade the crucial point, or even lie in their answers. ) PARAGRAPHIC CONCLUSION: Under such circumstances, it is almost impossible for us to expect the respondents to provide accurate information about their opinion toward 10, Are the respondents representative: CHARACTER: the respondents could not represent the general population, or the respondents constitute a selective sample due to certain reasons. SEE ALSO: selective sample, quantity of the sample, changing scopes BASIC ARCHITECTURE: to point out that the respondents might not be randomly selected, or people who are interested in the subject of the survey are more likely to respond to the survey than are other people and inherently form a selective sample, thus could not represent the general population. EXAMPLE: T.S ( pointing out that people who responded to the survey might not be representative of the general group) We should also notice that the respondents studied in the survey may not represent the general group of EXPLANATION: We all know that in many cases, people who are interested in might be generally more likely to respond to the survey than other people are, or are more willing to express their own opinions and positions on the issue of ILLUSTRATIONS: (other people who did not respond may hold a totally different position toward the issue studied, and the author should include those people in the study to present a more convincing result. ) PARAGRAPHIC CONCLUSION: Without considering the situation of other groups of people, the result of the survey in itself could not justifiably illustrate that 11, False analogy: CHARACTER: the author recommends one of two institutions (cities, companies, etc.) to copy the actions or policies of the other, while actually the two institutions are not comparable. SEE ALSO: incomplete comparison, changing scopes BASIC ARCHITECTURE: to point out that there might be many differences between the two institutions, and copying the actions (policies, solutions, etc.) of other city (companies, colleges, etc.) indiscriminately may not bring about expected results. EXAMPLE: T.S ( pointing out that the two institutions in the argument might not be comparable) In the argument the author recommends A to carry out same (policies, actions, solutions on ) as B, but the analogy between them might be unsubstantiated. EXPLANATION: The author fails to illustrate that A and B are similar enough at every aspect and are indeed comparable. CONCESSION: While it is true that A and B share some common ground on , TRANSITION: there are still some obvious differences between them. ILLUSTRATIONS: (many differences exist between A and B and these differences may well render the policies(actions, solutions, etc) proved to be effective for A might not have the same effectiveness for B ) PARAGRAPHIC CONCLUSION: Before A decide to copy Bs experiences, the author should take these differences into account and make careful study on the comparability of the two (cities, companies, schools, etc). 12, Incomplete comparison /selective comparison /ex parte information: CHARACTER: the argument compares two subjects through only limited or selective aspects, while other important factors that would influence the result are ignored. / the argument provides information only about one of the two subjects being compared, thus we could not make thorough and justified evaluation. SEE ALSO: incomplete information, false analogy BASIC ARCHITECTURE: to point out that the author compares only selective aspects of the two subjects, or provides information about only one side, and we need to know if other factors that would influence the result are equal in each case, or to know much more detailed information about the other side. EXAMPLE: T.S ( pointing out that the comparison between the subjects might be incomplete or selective) The author hastily implies that A is superior to B in , but the comparison between A and B is incomplete. EXPLANATION: The author only compares TRANSITION: however, there are myriad of factors which, if differ in these cases, would bring about totally different result for the comparison. ILLUSTRATIONS: (many other factors would influence the result while ignored by the author in the argument ) PARAGRAPHIC CONCLUSION: Without any further consideration about t