ShortTerm Memory and Interpreting.doc

Short-Term Memory and Interpreting短时记忆与口译摘 要口译是一种语言处理形式。 口译是为了帮助无法沟通的人们理解对方。探索大脑和记忆机制的奥秘有助于人们理解领悟语言信息处理过程。研究记忆，尤其是短时记忆的重要性能促进口译员的训练，从而培养出高素质的口译员架起沟通的桥梁。由于人类大脑是如此复杂，又是如此精妙，研究工作十分困难，要研究人的记忆也同样的困难。尽管研究科学家已经就此课题做了很多实验，人类大脑以及记忆还有很多未知区域。部分结论仅是根据个人经验或是理论论述，但是这些结论不一定完全错误。本论文是根据科学家们和口译员们的研究而写的。部分论据是科学家们及口译员们的个人经历及经验，其余都是实验结论。本论文分为三部分：介绍、主体及结论。论文主体部分又分为三部分。第一部分通对大脑的剖析及讲述记忆的形成过程，介绍记忆种类尤其是短时记忆。第二部分主要通过“精力分配模式”阐述短时记忆在口译中的重要性。第三部分介绍提高短时记忆的方法，在口译训练中该类方法已被采用。关键词：大脑；记忆；短时记忆；口译；精力分配；短时记忆训练Short-Term Memory and InterpretingABSTRACTInterpreting is a form of language processing. It helps people who cannot understand each other communicate. Uncovering the mystery of the brain and memory mechanisms will help us understand the cognitive and psychological processing of linguistic information. Exploring the importance of memory, especially short-term memory will help to train interpreters. This will create more high-quality interpreters to bridge the people. As the human brain is so complicated and delicate, it has been difficult to study the brain. Memory is also difficult to study. Although many researchers have done experiments on the topic, there are still many unknown things about it. There has also been research on the topic but are confined to personal experiences or theoretical expositions. But the result from this research is not necessarily wrong. This thesis is based on the result of research done by scientists and interpreters. Some are their personal experiences; some are experimental results. This thesis is divided into three parts: introduction, body, and conclusion. The body of the thesis is consisted of three sections. In section one it talks about short-term memory. It starts with mechanism of memory and mechanic system of brain works. It briefs on physically how different parts of brain help with memory, and how memory is created. Then the thesis talks about the categories of memory and the definition of short-term memory. Part two details on the relationship of short-term memory and interpreting through effort model. The last part of the body talks about the possible methods of enhancing short-term memory. Some of the methods have already been used in interpreting training. Keywords: Brain; Memory; Short-Term Memory; Interpreting; Effort Model; Short-Term Memory TrainingCONTENTS摘 要IABSTRACTII1 Introduction12 Brief Views on Short-term Memory32.1 The Definition of Memory32.1.1 Mechanic System of Memory32.1.2 Mechanic System of Brain Works42.1.3 The Category and Stages of Memory62.2 The Definition of Short-Term Memory62.2.1 Immediate Memory and Working Memory72.2.2 Memory Span82.2.3 Limited Ability82.2.4 Recency Effect92.3 The Difference between Short-term Memory and Long-term Memory103 Short-Term Memory and Interpreting113.1 The Definition of Interpreting113.2 The Relation of Short-Term Memory and Interpreting113.2.1 Effort Model124. Short-Term Memory Training144.1 Visualizing Materials144.2 Comprehension and Logic Improvement144.2.1 Newspaper Article Retelling154.3 Chunk Exercise154.3.1 Jot Down Large Number of Random Numbers164.4 Repetition164.5 Attention and Concentration164.6 Prepare Oneself for Interpreting175 Conclusion18References191 Introduction“I have a terrible memory.” How often have you heard that? It may not be rare to hear somebody joking about his memory. “My memory is awful. I managed to forget what I was going to tell my friend on the other end of the phone something that I remembered a moment ago.” Alan Baddeley, author of “Your Memory; A Users Guide”, is an expert in memory. He once almost forgot to appear at a call-in radio program on memory. Luckily, he was reminded of his mistake by reading the radio section of the newspaper. He arrived at the studio just in time to be asked by the anchor man for a few tips on improving your memory (Alan, 9). Pretty ironic, isnt it? But he believes that he has a good memory, and would argue that both his memory and everyones memory exceeds that of the best computer in terms of capacity, flexibility and durability. Most people would agree that everyones memory has the potential to be improved, regardless of ones present capability. Hermann Ebbinghaus, a German psychologist who pioneered the experimental study of memory, described the forgetting curve and the learning curve. According to the forgetting curve describes the exponential curve that illustrates how fast we tend to forget the information we had learned. The sharpest decline is in the first twenty minutes, then in the first hour, and then the curve evens off after about one day. It is closely related to strength of memory which refers to the durability that memory traces in the brain. The stronger the memory is, the longer period of time that a person is able to recall it. His forgetting curve and learning curve have been popular among language learners, since the appearance of the electronic dictionary with the additional function of words learning and reciting. Electronic dictionaries are programmed to tell users to repeat learning and reciting the words they just recited in a period of time, according to the forgetting curve. The word learning and reciting function is one of the practical uses of the forgetting curve and learning curve.The examples above have shown the relationship between humans and their memory. Every person in the world is enjoying or suffering from this memory. People with good memories are trying to enhance their memory further, so as to take advantage of it. People with bad memory are trying to cope with their memory problem. Interpreters are a group of people whose career depends on their memory, especially short-term memory. This paper, therefore, is to discuss the relationship of short-term memory and interpreters. It would be important to understand the definition of Short-Term Memory and interpreting, the difference between Short-Term Memory and Long-Term Memory, why interpreters rely deeply on Short-Term Memory, and how interpreters can enhance their Short-Term Memory in order to be more effective. With the boosting of Chinese economy and international trade, increasingly more interpreters are needed to help smooth international business. The desired result is to raise the awareness of the importance of short-term memory, and offer students who want to be interpreters, as well as other language learners, advice on how to train their short-term memory. 2 Brief Views on Short-term Memory 2.1 The Definition of MemoryIn every book about memory, there is a definition of memory. “Memory is the most extraordinary phenomenon in the natural world.” (Thompson and Stephen, 1) “Memory is not a single organ like the heart or liver, but an alliance of systems that work together, allowing us to learn from the past and predict the future.”(Baddeley, 9) Every expert and scientist has their own definition of memory.2.1.1 Mechanic System of MemoryFrom the introduction of this paper, it is not hard to imagine what the world would be like without memory. One would not be able to remember any past or any future event. Each individual would be a single island in the sea, having no connection or relation with each other. One stores so much information in the “memory store,” that without the information in it, humans would not be humans. In the “memory store,” one puts everything he learns, such as vocabulary, knowledge of language, knowledge of every fact about life, personal experience, skills of sports, music, feelings, understanding of all around him, and so on (Thompson and Stephen, 1). One can hardly name all the things he consciously or unconsciously stored in his memory. It is, then understandable that the definition of memory is elusive. However, scientists have been studying very hard and have discovered the working mechanism of memory. Shown in Figure 2-3, memories are formed when a group of neurons fires together when activated. At first, Neuron A receives a stimulus, which causes it to set off neuron B. If neuron A fires again quickly, a link is established. Later, neuron A can just fire weakly to set off neuron B. Then, the firing of neurons A and B may set off neighboring neurons C and D. If this repeatedly happens, the four cells become a network and will fire together in the future, thus a memory is formed. A repetition of stimulus will then form the memory (Sousa, 80). In the latter half of this thesis, repetition will also mentioned as a way of helping the training of the short-term memory. These procedures are all performed in our brain. What parts of our brain help with our memory? Figure 2-3 (Sousa, 80)2.1.2 Mechanic System of Brain WorksAs is shown in Figure 2-1, our brain is complicated. Different parts specialize in different tasks, yet corporately work together. The key structures for memory include the cerebral cortex, the hippocampus, the basal ganglia and the cerebellum (Thompson and Stephen, 12). Early surveyors of the brain gave Latin and Greek names to the parts of the brain according to their location, namely forebrain, midbrain, and hindbrain. Another concept proposed by Paul Maclean in the 1960s, described the brain according to the stages of evolution: reptilian, paleo-mammalian, and mammalian (Sousa, 15-16). According to Paul MacLean, the brain stem is the oldest and deepest area of the brain, which controls and monitors vital body functions, such as heartbeat, respiration, body temperature, and digestion. Above the brain stem, lies the limbic system, or the old mammalian brain. There are three parts of the limbic system that are very important to learning and memory. They are the Thalamus, the Hippocampus (the Greek word for “seahorse”), and the Amygdala (the Greek word for “almond”). Cerebrum is the largest of the four areas. The hemisphere is covered by a thin but tough layer of cells, called the cortex. The frontal Lobe or the frontal cortex is the front of the cerebrum, lying just behind the forehead. Most of the working memory is located here. The cerebellum (Latin for “little brain”), is located just below the rear part if the cerebrum. There is new evidence that the cerebrum also may help coordinating and fine-tuning our thoughts, emotions, senses, and memories. Lastly, there are brain cells (Sousa, 17-20). For the locations of the interior parts, see Figure 2-2Figure 2-1 (Thompson, 12)Figure 2-2 (Sousa, 17)2.1.3 The Category and Stages of MemoryRichard Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin proposed a model of memories; later the model got a nickname the “modal model”. They assumed that there are three kinds of memories: sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory. See Figure 2-4. In this model, information comes into the brain from the environment. The information will go through a series of brief sensory memory stores and then goes into a common short-term memory store. These two procedures are assumed to be working memory, capable of manipulating information and relating it to long-term storage (Baddeley, 17).Figure 2-4 (Thompson and Stephen, 26)2.2 The Definition of Short-Term MemoryIn 1890, William James used primary memory to refer to the contents of our immediate, ongoing awareness. Since then, it has been called immediate memory, short-term memory, and working memory (Thompson and Stephen, 25). However, David A. Sousa, in his book, How the Brain Works refers to the term short-term memory as all of the early steps of temporary memory that leads to long-term memory. He defines short-term memory as including immediate memory and working memory (Sousa, 41). The idea that we have two temporary memories is recent. Sensory data that are not listed move from the thalamus (See Figure 2-1 and 2-2) to the sensory processing areas of the cortex and through the first of two temporary memories called immediate memory or sensory memory according to Thompson and Stephen. In this thesis, the model will be referred to Sousas memory model.2.2.1 Immediate Memory and Working MemoryImmediate memory area can be compared to as a clipboard, in Sousas model (the model), where we put information briefly until we decide how to deal with the information. According to Sousa, immediate memory operates subconsciously or consciously and holds data for up to about 30 seconds according to Sousa (Sousa, 40-42). Peterson (Peterson and Peterson, 193-198) found it to be 6 - 12 seconds, while Atkinson and Shiffrin (Atkinson, R.L., and Stiffrin, R.M., Vol.2) state it is 30 seconds. An individuals experience will determine the importance of the information (Sousa, 41). If X information is of no real importance to a individual, his memory will drop X information out after use. For instance, if one calls 114 for a friends home phone number, but he does not have pen and paper at hand, or he does not know how to record the number into the phone while on the phone, then he has to remember it until he calls his friend or finds a pen and paper. After that, he may forget the number quickly. According to Sousa, because the number is no longer important to him, it drops out of immediate memory. Sousas theory explains why a lot of conference interpreters cannot remember details about the material they have just interpreted. Under the tension of the conferences, the focus of interpreters is in interpreting the materials, instead of remembering them. Jack C. Peng, a prestigious interpreter in Shanghai, jokingly said during a class in translation and interpreting training at the Transemantix Institute of Interpretation and Translation in Shanghai, that as long as he can interpret the material correctly, what the material says is not important to him. But if he knows his next conference will also cover the same topic, Jack says he then always can retain some of the information in his mind. This example illustrates another characteristic of brain processing: the hierarchy of response to sensory input. Because Jack knows the importance of the information, his brain moves the data rapidly to working memory and then maybe long-term memory. This characteristic of memory is considered as a way to enhance memory, because emotions can enhance memory by causing the release of hormones that stimulate the amygdala to signal brain regions to strengthen memory (Sousa, 42).Working memory is the second temporary memory and the place where conscious, rather than subconscious, processing occurs. It is compared to a work table in the model. Scanning experiments show that most of the working memorys activity occurs in the frontal lobes, and other parts of the brain are usually called to help. (Sousa, 44)2.2.2 Memory SpanMemory span indicate