Promoting Dynamic Interplay between Study and Research in ELT Practice.doc
Promoting Dynamic Interplay between Study and Research in ELT Practice居中，Times New Roman三号，黑正体。Contents 章节标题Times New Roman小四号，黑正体。一级小标题Times New Roman小四号，正体。号，黑正体1. Introduction.12. Three sources of knowledge.1 2.1 Experience 1 2.2 Reasoning.2 2.3 Research33. Four types of study.4 3.1 Receptive study.5 3.2 Productive study5 3.3 Critical study.6 3.4 Creative study64. Promoting dynamic interplay between study and research7 4.1 Some possible ways of ELT practice concerning study and research.7 4.2 Two approaches to mutual stimulation between study and research in ELT.85. Conclusion.8References.9Acknowledgements.10Promoting Dynamic Interplay between Studyand Research in ELT Practice居中，Times New Roman三号，黑正体。如有副标题，用冒号将主、副标题隔开。左顶格，Times New Roman小四号，黑正体。左顶格，Times New Roman小四号，正体。Abstract: This paper first explores the significance of research in comparison to the other two sources of human knowledge (i.e. experience and reasoning) in the context of ELT practice in China. It then elaborates the four kinds of study: receptive study, productive study, critical study and creative study, and proposes a practice of ever-advancing integration of various types of study with different levels of depth of information processing. It finally discusses possible relationships between study and research and suggests research-based study and study-oriented research as two potential approaches to mutual stimulation between study and research in ELT practice in China.Key words: study; research; English language teachingTimes New Roman小四号，正体。关键词以34个为宜，中间以分号隔开左顶格，Times New Roman小四号，黑正体。居中，宋体三号，黑正体。如有副标题，另起一行，居中，前加破折号。在英语教学中力求学习与研究的相互促进摘要: 本文首先结合中国英语教学实际探讨了研究在教学中的重大作用，指出它是人类知识三大来源中最重要的一项；然后阐述了学习的四个层次，即接受性学习、运用性学习、评析性学习和创造性学习，还提出英语学习的全过程应当是一个在学习层次上包容性不断提高的实践，即能够融汇越来越多高层次学习的过程；最后讨论了学习与研究间的关系，并提出了在英语教学中实现学习研究相互促进的两种途径，即以研究为基点的学习和以学习为前导的研究。宋体小四号，正体。关键词以3-4个为宜，中间以分号隔开关键词：学习；研究；英语教学 左顶格，宋体小四号，黑正体。章节标题或一级小标题单独占一行，左顶格，Times New Roman四号，黑正体。1. Introduction两端对齐，Times New Roman小四号，正体。Study and research are two of the most confusing terms used in educational settings because they can sometimes use quite interchangeably while on other occasions they may refer to something remarkably different. When we say, “Were doing a study into how much time middle school students spend learning English”, we mean that we are doing research into this issue. However, in the sentence “After six years of study in school, he successfully entered Zhejiang University at the age of 17”, the “study” used here is generally not interpreted as “research”.Nowadays, it is reasonably acceptable to say that students can not only study but also research. Researchers need to study in the course of research. To be teachers, they should do some research while continuing their study of what they are teaching in further education. In order to promote English language teaching (ELT) in schools and colleges in China, this paper will first discuss the role of research in the acquisition of knowledge, then examine the kinds of study, and finally explore the dynamic interaction between study and research in terms of educational theory and practice in ELT settings.2. Three sources of knowledge二级及以下各级小标题单独占一行，左顶格，Times New Roman小四号，正体。Research is one of the three major means for human beings to acquire knowledge of the environment including the natural world and our human society. The other two are “experience” and “reasoning”(Cohen and Manion 1). The role of research in the acquisition of human knowledge can hardly be understood fully without being studied in connection to that of experience and reasoning. For the purpose of achieving a better understanding of research, the role of experience and reasoning will be considered before that of research.2.1 ExperienceExperience is a kind of development of personal knowledge of the world. It is regarded as an individually accumulated body of knowledge (Cohen and Manion 1).In a problem-solving situation, people tend to resort to personal experience first. However, where solutions to problems clearly lie beyond this body of personal experience, it is often helpless to resort to personal experience. In the case of foreign language learning, the learners native language often interferes with or facilitates the learning of the target language. This can be considered as a clear indication of the learners reliance on the personal experience in his or her first language. It is arguable that the personal experience is by no means reliable although it is sometimes helpful because it cannot guarantee smooth progress and success in foreign language learning.As for English language teaching, our experience of English examinations can be resorted to when we help our students prepare for the college entrance examination of English. However, it is difficult for us to resort to our previous personal experience when we are facing the problem of how to motivate middle school students in communicative language teaching as many of them can hardly see any chance to communicate directly with native speakers of English.2.2 ReasoningReasoning is the act of forming conclusions, judgements or inferences by thinking in a logical manner. There are two basic types of reasoning: one is inductive reasoning and the other is deductive reasoning.Inductive reasoning begins with observations and evidence of empirical regularities or empirical relationships (Howard 8). This is a mental process from a number of specific cases to a general idea underlying them. When a learner of English comes across expressions such as “three books”, “many ships”, “two minutes”, he or she may form a hypothesis that “-s” is used to indicate the idea of “two or more”. It is not difficult to see that inductive reasoning in foreign language learning often leads to hypothesis formation.Deductive reasoning begins with basic beliefs, theories, assumptions, propositions, and so on, the validity of which is assumed and untested (Howard 8). This is a mental activity from a general idea to specific cases. In foreign language learning, if we learn a grammatical rule or a word-formation rule first, then we apply it to make a sentence or to coin a new word. For example, according to the English word-formation rule that the prefix “un-” and an adjective may combine to form another adjective with negative or opposite force in it: “un-” and “happy” go together to form “unhappy” with the meaning of “not happy”.There is an obvious limitation in reasoning as an activity. According to Cohen and Manion, “it reasoning was no longer related to observation and experience and became merely a mental exercise” (3). That is to say, the credibility of reasoning, whether inductive or deductive, will be questionable once reasoning is not connected to the reality. Now consider the hypothesis that “-s” used with a countable noun indicates the idea of “two or more” again. As noted by Quirk and his co-authors, “unlike some languages where plural implies two or more, English makes the division after more than one: one half day, one day But: one and a half days, two days, one or two days” (297). Here, it is clear that reasoning itself cannot guarantee its self-correction. Similarly, the application of the word-formation rule in the previous paragraph cannot prevent learners from making unacceptable adjectives such as “*unhonest”, “*unactive”. When such errors occur, they are considered as cases of overgeneralization reflecting the limitation of inductive reasoning.Although reasoning has its weaknesses, its contributions to the human knowledge are enormous. As Cohen and Manion state, the role of reasoning in the acquisition of human knowledge is threefold: 1) the suggestion of hypotheses; 2) the logical development of these hypotheses; and 3) the clarification and interpretation of scientific findings and their synthesis into a conceptual framework (4). The implication of their remarks hints that reasoning not only directs but also constructs the development of human knowledge, including our knowledge of language and language learning and teaching.2.3 ResearchResearch can be defined from different perspectives. From the view of information processing, research refers to the process of obtaining and analysing information (Hitchcock and Hughes 5). Considering its design features, research “has been defined by Kerlinger as the systematic, controlled, empirical and critical investigation of hypothetical propositions about the presumed relations among natural phenomena (Cohen and Manion 4).Cohen and Manion elaborate the three advantages of research in comparison to experience and reasoning: First, research is systematic and controlled because its operations are based on reasoning whereas experience cannot be systematic and self-correcting because of its haphazard manner in dealing with a problem. Second, research is empirical because it resorts to experience for validation whereas reasoning is not empirical because of its subjective nature. Third, only research is self-corrective. This self-corrective functioning is guaranteed in two ways. On the one hand, the scientific method of research has built-in mechanisms to protect researchers from error. On the other hand, the researchers procedures and results are open to public examination by fellow professionals (Cohen and Manion 4). (See Table 1)Cohen and Manions elaboration reveals that research combines the strengths of both experience and reasoning while avoiding their weaknesses. Therefore, research can be regarded as the most powerful means to acquire new knowledge. It is beneficial for both teachers and students to integrate research into their study and teaching of English.Table 1. A Comparison between Experience, Reasoning and ResearchExperienceReasoningResearchSystematic and controlled×Empirical×Self-correcting××When we combine experience and reasoning through research, we can reflect on experience to form hypotheses through reasoning and, at the same time, obtain empirical evidence through experience to test and modify the hypotheses derived from reasoning. For example, when a learner first resorts to inductive reasoning to form the hypothesis that “-s” indicates the idea of “two or more”. Later, the learner may happen to produce output such as “*one and a half hour” through deductive reasoning on the basis of the existing hypothesis and get the corrective feedback from the teacher. With such feedback as negative empirical evidence, he or she would modify the existing hypothesis to reach the conclusion that “English makes the division after more than one” (Quirk et al. 297).3. Four types of studyIn a generally accepted sense, study refers to the mental activities in acquiring knowledge. According to The Random House Dictionary of the English Language, “study” means “application of the mind to the acquisition of knowledge, as by reading, investigation, or reflection” (“Study,” def. 1888). From this definition, we can identify two kinds of study: one is receptive study mainly through reading and the other is critical study through investigation or reflection. More types of study can be recognised when we make reference to different educational theoretical sources. “Productive study” is proposed here to develop the educational idea “Use what you have just read to learn what you have just read” (Biehler and Snowman 438). “Creative study” can be a potential direction in education when we accept Sternberg and Williamss advice “You can learn and teach creative thinking” and “develop creativity in yourself, in your students, and in your colleagues and staff members” (1).In this section, these ideas will be tentatively developed in the ELT context.3.1 Receptive studyReceptive study occurs when you receive information from the outside world. In the case of foreign language learning, successful receptive study is expected to be based on Krashens “more comprehensible input” (39) and Ausubels “meaningful reception learning” (Hohn 224). Here, meaningful communication is the key to success. In receptive study, you select and take in what is new and meaningful to you.3.2 Productive studyProductive study occurs when you use what you have learned. This is more demanding because it results from your recalling what you have learned. For example, if you want to retell a story in English, you have to memorise enough words and sentence patterns as well as the plot of the story. In receptive study, you may try some informed wise guesses with the help of the context of communication. However, guessing techniques are of little use in language production.In foreign language learning, there is a kind of special production for memorization rather than for communication: it occurs when you recite a new text by repeating it again and again silently or aloud to yourself or when you write it for several times.Productive study can help learners consolidate the knowledge of the target language and develop fluency and accuracy. However, it is not very helpful for the development of learners analytical skills and creative potentials if the learners are satisfied with such reproductive fluency and accuracy. In the classrooms of many middle schools, it is not difficult to see a student flip through the pages to find out the answer to the teachers question and read it aloud. Table 2 Comparing the Components of Study Plans between Successful and Unsuccessful Learners of English (Adapted from 文秋芳 58)Components of a study planSuccessful learners (5)Unsuccessful learners (5)What55When42How51Why51Answer:Difference between themspecific/concrete/cleargeneral/abstract/vague3.3 Critical studyCritical study comes from your analysis of what you have learned. Your analysis is essentially characterised by critical thinking. As elaborated by Wood, critical thinking does not mean to criticise or find fault. It means “to use a variety of mental activities to acquire greater understanding and insight” and “these mental activities include asking why, making comparisons and contrasts, analyzing causes and effects, or looking for problems and solutions” (Wood 305). In a class of study skill training, the teacher presented the research findings as shown in Table 2 and then asked the students to use a pair of
