LANGUAGE USE OF BEGINNING STUDENTS IN A TAIWANESE ENGLISH IMMERSION PRESCHOOL台灣全英語沉浸式幼稚園中初學者對語言的使用研究.doc

台灣全英語沉浸式幼稚園中初學者對語言的使用研究LANGUAGE USE OF BEGINNING STUDENTS IN A TAIWANESE ENGLISH IMMERSION PRESCHOOLYuh-Pei Peggy Huang Department of English , Tamkang University淡江大學英文系 AbstractEnglish immersion preschools in Taiwan are growing in acceptance and in number. This is largely attributed to an increased awareness of the importance of English in Taiwan, and its relevance on a global scale. Following general acceptance of the fact that children need to attain a good foundation in English, many parents seek to place their children in English immersion preschools to give them the best opportunity to achieve English language abilities equivalent to those of native speakers. To this end, English immersion preschools employ native English speakers from abroad and strive to promote an English-only environment in which children can learn their second language subconsciously through everyday interaction. This paper reports the findings of an empirical study that investigates language use of beginning students in a Taiwanese English immersion preschool. The results show that children code-switch for different reasons, and that there are several key factors that cause code-switching in the classroom. Also, it was found that code-switching decreases as exposure to English increases. Based on research findings, it is argued that foreign teachers' knowledge of basic Chinese is generally helpful when dealing with the students' code-switching. Finally, four distinct characteristics in children's early language development process, namely, parroting, peer-teaching, interlanguage, and language creation, are reported and examined. Key words: code-switching, immersion preschool, interlanguage中文摘要最近台灣沉浸式幼兒園不斷地設立，這種現象顯示台灣在全球化的過程中，英文所扮演的角色愈來愈重，家長也愈來愈重視孩子的英語教育。全英語沉浸式幼兒園是奠基於這樣的假設:孩子愈早學會英文，也愈早擁有等同於母語人士的英文能力。全英語沉浸式幼兒園聘用外籍人士，營造全英語的學習環境，讓幼童透過每日師生的互動，不知不覺學會英語。本文調查台灣一所全英語沉浸式幼兒園中初學者的語言使用，實驗的研究成果顯示，孩童因為不同的理由而有中英文語碼轉換的現象，研究也發現孩童暴露在英文的環境中愈久，語碼轉換的情況愈少，外師基本的中文知識通常有助於處理幼童的語碼轉換問題，最後同時報導並檢測園中孩子早期語言發展過程中的四項特色:重述他人話語、同儕教學、中介語言和語言創造。關鍵字:語碼轉換，沉浸式幼兒園，中介語言I. IntroductionIt is evident that English is the worlds preeminent international language for the new millennium. The necessity of using English to communicate in modern society is indisputable. Many Taiwanese parents are sending their three-year-old children to so-called bilingual preschools in order to give their children a head start in English acquisition, an opportunity that was not available to previous generations. However, since the results generally are not satisfactory, some parents have had the foresight to send their children to English immersion preschools instead. The term immersion can be defined as a method of foreign language instruction in which the regular school curriculum is taught through the medium of the foreign language (Met, 1993). The first immersion program was initiated in a small suburban community in St. Lambert, Quebec in 1965. The program proved to be successful in many aspects (Lambert & Tucker, 1972), and since then, immersion programs have become a popular choice for many parents. Immersion programs can be differentiated according to the grade level during which immersion begins: early immersion starts in kindergarten or occasionally grade one, middle immersion starts in grade four or five, and late immersion starts in grade seven (Cummins, 1999). The types of English immersion programs this project is investigating can be categorized as early total immersion because it begins at the preschool level, and one hundred percent of the schooling is conducted in English.The goal of an English immersion program is to provide children with an all-encompassing English-speaking environment where their English ability can be fully developed. Most children dont speak any English when they enter the program, but after a couple of months, they begin to display remarkable speaking output. When analyzing this output, we sometimes encounter the phenomenon of code-switching, the mixing of more than one language within one sentence or between sentences in a single conversation. Code-switching may involve a word, a phrase, a clause, or a few sentences. Another commonly found phenomenon in childrens language output is what Selinker (1972) called “interlanguage.” Interlanguage is the type of language produced by second language learners in the process of learning a second language. It differs from both the mother tongue and the target language. To better understand childrens language learning process in an immersion setting, the paper will attempt to examine a number of questions concerning code-switching and interlanguage.II. Literature ReviewA. Code-switchingCode-switching, including mixing, transferring, and borrowing, is the use of two languages simultaneously or interchangeably (Valdes-Fallis, 1977). Some competence in both languages is necessary for code-switching, even if the speakers are not yet considered fluent bilinguals (Duran 1994). Code-switching is a common phenomenon among three to four year old children learning Mandarin Chinese and English simultaneously, since children are experimenting with the English language in the same way they experiment with the Chinese language. They switch codes in order to convey a complete idea. When students are unable to conceive an appropriate word within a limited amount of time, code-switching, in some cases, allows them to express themselves more fluidly (Weinreich, 1970; Wald, 1985). Sometimes code-switching occurs in what Poplack (1998) refers to as “Mot Juste,” where terms like McDonalds and hamburgers are best expressed in English. At times, code-switching takes the form of translation or repetition. Duran (1994) says, “If code-switching is something which happens naturally in the scheme of bilinguality, it must serve important functions for the language learner/user.”According to Gysels (1992), code-switching can achieve two goals: first, fill a linguistic and conceptual gap, and second, to aid in multiple communicative purposes. Corder (1981) notes that code-switching is seen by many as a communication strategy. Duran (1994) states that code-switching seems to serve important communicative and cognitive functions.As shown by Crystal (1987), there are a number of possible reasons for switching from one language to another. First, sometimes speakers cannot use one language to completely express what they want to say and therefore switch to another language to make up for the deficiency or difficulty so that the conversation may continue unabated. Second, a switch often occurs when one particular social group develops solidarity and seeks to exclude outsiders; the rapport built gives those affiliated with the group a sense of belonging and social function. Lastly, Crystal (1987) noted that a switch might convey a certain attitude to the listener. Monolinguals, for example, can adjust the tone of their language to match a perceived level of formality, thereby communicating their attitudes. Bilinguals, on the other hand, can use code-switching to achieve the same effect and give their speech added impact. Instead of interfering with language, code-switching makes up for a lack of language: by providing linguistic advantages. Code-switching has proven itself conducive to communication. Code-switching is a vital element in language acquisition. Skiba (1997) says that while language switching within a conversation may be disruptive for the listener, it might alternately be viewed as an opportunity for language development, since code-switching is a signal telling the listener of a need to provide samples from another language. In this circumstance, if the listener understands the meaning of the code-switching language, he/she is thereby provided an opportunity for language learning and development. In turn, this phenomenon reduces the need for code-switching and decreases the chance of continued interference.B. InterlanguageThe term interlanguage was coined by Selinker (1972) in recognition of the linguistic system that learners develop in the process of learning a second language. An interlanguage is neither the native language nor the target language, but instead it falls between the two. It refers to a language system that has a structurally intermediate status between the native and target languages (Brown, 1994). The concept of interlanguage might be better understood if it is thought of as a continuum between the first language and the target language along which all learners traverse (Larsen-Freeman and Long, 1991). By a gradual process of trial and error and hypothesis testing, learners slowly build up an approximate system to the target language. The theory of interlanguage is helpful in examining the dynamic and complex process of second language acquisition. As noted by Ellis (1994), the interlanguage theory is an appropriate starting point for discussions of second language acquisition because the theory was the first major attempt to provide an explanation of the mental processes responsible for second language acquisition.In the process of learning a second language, learners employ various strategies to cope with communication difficulties and to build their way to full target language competence. Numerous production and comprehension errors take place during this development. Several different processes cause the errors learners make in their interlanguage. These include: borrowing patterns from the mother tongue, extending patterns from the target language, and expressing meanings using the words and grammar which are already known (Longman Dictionary of Language Teaching & Applied Linguistics, 1992). According to Richard (1971), the errors that can be traced to the interference of the learners first language are interlingual errors, and the errors that result from faulty or partial learning of the target language are intralingual errors. Both interlingual and intralingual errors can be easily observed in the language production of Taiwanese children who are learning English. For example, some children say, “I dont want.” instead of the correct form: “I dont want to.” It is a typical interlingual error occasioned by the interference of Chinese grammar. It is also very common for beginning students to make intralingual errors, such as writing studys instead of studies.In addition to interlingual and intralingual errors, one common characteristic of an interlanguage is that learners sometimes employ communication strategy to reach their communication goals. Communication strategy, as defined by the Longman Dictionary of Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics (1992), is a way used to express a meaning in a second or foreign language, by a learner who has a limited command of the language. For example, sleeping room is used when referring to a bedroom.While the negative effects caused by the learners first language are often stressed in error analysis, the positive effects should not be overlooked. As Brown (1994) argued, the native language is often positively transferred, and the learners benefit from the facilitating effects of the first language. The native language is undoubtedly the most valuable knowledge that language learners can call upon when learning a second language. III. Research Questions1. In what circumstances does code-switching occur in an English immersion preschool? What purpose does code-switching serve in that circumstance?2. What causes an increase of code-switching in an English immersion preschool?3. Does code-switching decrease as exposure to English increases? 4. What are the advantages and disadvantages of a foreign teachers knowledge of Chinese in an English immersion setting? Do children benefit from a foreign teachers bilingual ability?5. What language learning characteristics are found in childrens early language acquisition process in an immersion setting?IV. MethodologyA. ParticipantsAJ American SchoolThe student population in this research project was from the AJ American School system AJ American School is a pseudonym to protect the privacy of the participating schools and participants. The AJ American School offers English immersion programs for Taiwanese preschoolers between the ages of three and six. There are several AJ American School campus locations in Taipei, and in each location, English is the language used in teaching and learning. Foreign teachers Native English-speaking teachers in Taiwan are often called “foreign teachers” as opposed to “Chinese teachers” who are actually non-native English-speaking teachers. While the term native English-speaking teacher and non-native English-speaking teacher are more correct, the terms foreign teacher and Chinese teacher are used in the article due to space constraints and for ease of reading. (native English-speaking teachers) teach the students various subjects, such as mathematics, science, phonics, writing, and art while Chinese teachers (non-native English-speaking teachers) assist in the classes. Instead of being taught as an independent subject, English is the medium of instruction in which the entire preschool curriculum is taught. This research project studied three beginner classes of three-year-old children in three different AJ American School locations. The three participating classes were the Red Room, the Blue Room, and the Yellow Room. The following is a brief description of the three classes.The Red RoomThe Red Room was a beginner class where students were between the ages of three and three and a half. There were fourteen students in the Red Room; seven girls and seven boys. The foreign teacher, Sherry To protect the privacy of participating students and teachers, their real names have been changed in the article., was an American-born Chinese, who was teaching for the first time. Sherry could understand and speak some Chinese. In the beginning of the research, she didnt use any Chinese in the classroom, but later on she began to resort to Chinese in order to have the children listen. Maybe because of her lack of experience, it seemed that Sherry had a difficult time managing the class. Having not developed a daily class routine, the class was rather loose and unorganized. The Chinese teacher, Ling, who was also teaching for the first time, seemed to have poor communication with Sherry. The Blue RoomThe Blue Room, also a beginner class, was located at an AJ American school in the Tienmu area. There were eleven students in the Blue Room; seven girls and four boys. The foreign teacher, Susan, was an experienced teacher who majored in English Literature and had taught ESL kids for several years. Although she didnt understand Chinese and never used any Chin