Dynamic Change and Translation of English Slang英语俚语的动态变化和适时翻译.doc

Dynamic Change and Translation of English SlangAbstract: This paper mainly stresses on the development and translation of English slang in the perspective of cultural connotation. Firstly, it introduces former researches in this field, discussing the origin, definition, features, translation of English slang. Secondly, it talks about the cradle of English slang and focuses on several subculture groups. Thirdly, it explicates the formation and change of English slang. At the same time, it states that slang is a complex language variety because it takes in new elements ceaselessly and changes overtime. Lastly, it comes to the point of translation problems and strategies and recommends some translation methods under different situations such as literal translation, domestication and foreignization. In the end, it not only discusses about the existing problem of English slang research, but also puts forward several ways to improve English learners language level of slang.Key words: slang; dynamic change; translation strategy英语俚语的动态变化和适时翻译摘要：本文主要从文化内涵的角度谈论英语俚语的发展与翻译问题。首先，论文介绍了在本领域前人对英语俚语的起源、定义、特征、翻译等的研究成果。然后，讨论了英语俚语的主要来源即亚文化群体，重点介绍了其中几种群体所创造并使用的俚语。之后举例表明俚语的构成和发展变化。同时，阐明了俚语是一种复杂的语言形式因为它不断地吸收新的元素，时刻在更新。最后，本文结合之前的分析，讨论了在俚语翻译过程中碰到的问题和应对策略，并介绍了几种翻译方法，如直译、归化、异化等。在论文最后，不仅阐明了俚语研究存在的问题，而且为英语学习者提高俚语语言水平提出了一些建议。关键词：俚语；动态变化；翻译策略 1. IntroductionEnglish slang, as a most colorful and vivid language variety, is an ever-changing set of colloquial words and phrases generally considered distinct from and socially lower than the standard language. It is rich in cultural connotations and the spirit of the times. It originated from the subculture groups and evolves closely to peoples daily life. Since slang was first used among the subculture groups, its usage has special limitations. But during the continuous development, its vocabulary and contextual meanings have been enlarged a lot. Its cultural, transient and dynamic characters require the users to pay special attention in case of making a fool of themselves. Therefore, English learners, especially not natives, always have difficulty in understanding and speaking slang naturally. As for translators, to reach the equivalence of English slang translation is really not an easy job. The English slang, is known for its colorfulness and functionality, and is widely studied. This paper mainly looks into the dynamic change and translation of English slang.2. Former Researches on English SlangEnglish slang has been studied by many learners, linguists and researchers. Nobody is quite sure where the word slang comes from. According to Mencken (1919), slang developed in the 18th century either from an erroneous past-tense of sling or from the word language itself. The use of slang is far more ancient than the word slang itself. In fact, slang is nearly as old as language itself.About its definition, there is no set one. Ambrose Bierce (1911) said “slang is the grunt of the human hog with an audible memory.” Maybe it is the earliest definition made by linguists. The Oxford English Dictionary (1989) defines it as the vocabulary by any set of persons of a low or disreputable character, language of a low and vulgar type. But the explanation in the American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language (2000) is more complex as follows: 1) Slang is a kind of language occurring chiefly in casual and playful speech, made up typically of short-lived coinages and figures of speech that are deliberately used in place of standard terms of added raciness, humor, irreverence, or other effects. 2) Slang is a language peculiar to a group, cant, argot or jargon: thieves slang. This definition focuses on speech features of English slang and divides slang by its usage among different groups of people. Of course, there are numerous other different definitions.As the border between slang and other formal, informal speeches is too vague, it is hard to absolutely separate slang from them. How slang is exactly defined and which items should or should not be listed under it have been the debating heat for years.The Dictionary of American Slang, originally published in 1960 and then expanded and completely updated edition by edition such as the New dictionary of American Slang (1986), is widely regarded as the standard in the field. It was Other slang dictionaries are: Oxford Dictionary of Modern Slang by Ayto John & Simpson John (1992), Historical Dictionary of American Slang Volume 2 by Lighter J. E. (1994), Dictionary of Contemporary Slang by Tony Thorne (1999) etc. Other research achievements connecting slang with culture are: Language and Culture by Eugene A. Nida (1993), Translation and Culture: A Study On English Slang by Li Qingrui (2003), A Tentative Study on the Language Features of American Slang and its Use in Different Social Groups by Zhang Shishu (2006) etc. Other research results are: Contemporary American Slang by Richard A. Spears (1990), Approaches to Translation by Peter Newmark (1995) etc.3. Origin and Formation of English Slang3.1 Origin of English Slang the Subculture GroupsLanguage is the mirror and carrier of culture. Every society has its own culture. Traditionally, culture can be divided into culture and subculture. The concept of subculture is contrary to that of culture. Culture is usually accepted by people in prevailing positions, while subculture is a kind of non-dominant culture. Slang is generated by individuals or the subculture groups who search for individuality, group solidarity and novelty. The creation of slang is as a means of self-expression. When an individual with sharp wit applies language in a new way to express hostility, ridicule or contempt, he may create slang. A new slang term is usually widely used in a subculture before it comes into the dominant culture. The subculture groups are the cradle of English slang.According to Chapman (1986), English slang originated from the subculture groups such as jobless vagrants, drug addicts, soldiers, sailors, detectives, cowboys, prostitutes, students, music and football fans, professional men, jazz musicians, gamblers, criminals etc. With the times, slang in special fields appeared. The military slang appeared because of wars. After World War , jazz terms have been replaced by those of rock, blues and rap. Drug terms increase rapidly as well as sports terms. Slang created by the black people has also accumulated. Until 1980s, some sources of slang had lost its creativity, while criminals, policemen, gamblers, teenagers and college students remain innovative. Entertainers and straying artists keep on making contributions to the development of slang, too. In recent years, slang has even taken in homosexual terms. Computer and hospital slang has also developed quickly. Moreover, the upper class such as political craftsmen, successful young man and talk show participants, even the upper-class newspapers and magazines keep providing us new slang. These people mostly are well educated and quite creative of daily slang.It is said that a great number of slang is jargon and cant, which cannot be decoded by laymen. But many of the expressions are widely used, become understandable to mass people and then are frequently imitated. Thus the usage was enlarged and gradually accepted as slang. The following passages will focus on several certain subculture groups in the perspective of cultural context to learn the features of English slang. Thus slangs cultural essence and its dynamic change will exactly be found.3.1.1 Criminal, gangdom, prison slangAmerica seriously suffers from crime. Although the government has spent great sum of money and forces to fight against it, the crimes are just increasing instead of decreasing. The slang used by criminals, gangsters and prisoners is highly concealed. If they plan to murder someone, they call it blot out. If they free themselves from prison through narrow windows or somewhere like that, they call it crush out. The robber activity is named knockover. Unsuccessful robbery is named blowout. The crime record is named rap sheet. Words like fuss, bull, pig, dick, fink, eagle for policeman were not created by officers of the law but the opposing group. More examples of slang used by gangdom are fork for steal, get your forks off that for dont touch it. (Chapman, 1986)3.1.2 College slangCollege students are the most active and vital part of the population. They generate a large quantity of slang to relieve their peer pressure, to meet social communication needs, to reduce their psychological imbalance through growth and to alleviate academic struggle. College students are full of curiosity and pursuit, and have a strong sense of independence. They are ready to change traditional conventions. They have their own values that guide their life. These values can reflect on the language style of the college students, which is the college slang. English college slang is used by college students who belong to the same subculture group. Additionally, they have created many new word and expressions. They call diligent students worms, and call the slow students birdbrain. A newcomer is fresher. The period without classes is dead hour. The students who are kicked out for failure in courses or violation of school rules are the flunk out. They also call economy econ, psychology psyche etc.3.1.3 Homosexual and drug slangUsually, a new social group appears and creates a culture of its own. The homosexual group came into peoples eyes and is becoming larger and larger. The homosexual addicts wander in the world of loneliness and fear. They are often unwilling to expose their feelings to the public. Among them there are well-known actors, artists, pop singers or common citizens and students. As we know, male homosexuality is called gay, female lesbian. And the amphibious men or women who have an intercourse with both male and female are called AC-DC. AC is short for alternating current; DC is short for direct current. Boondagger is a lesbian like a bull that rush onto the street.Drug abuse is also a big problem for America. As time goes by, drug terms have abundantly developed, including drug slang among the drug dealers and addicts. The drug addicts call heroin antifreeze, marijuana Mary and Jane, morphine Miss Morphin. The drug dealers are called candy man or fixer. Drugs are beautified as Gods medicine. Candy flipping, also from drug slang, means LSD (A crystalline compound, C20H 25N 3O, derived from lysergic acid and used as a powerful hallucinogenic drug. It is also called acid, lysergic acid diethylamide) and ecstasy.3.1.4 Political slang In the world of politics, humour, irony, sometimes indistinctness are required. Slang has this function so that it is introduced into politics. For example, Water Gate event, Iran Gate event and White-water Gate event all refer to scandals of the statesmen. Think-thank stands for bureaucratism and dilatoriness. Brian drain stands for people with ability serve abroad. And no action, talk only refers to NATO. Boys in the back room refers to the politicians machination. Moreover, many terms relate to animals, such as Elephant for the Republic Party, Donkey for the Democratic Party.In conclusion, under a certain cultural background, a group of people may have their own social values. When these social values accord with the mainstream social values, they can contribute to the progress of the society. We know, now slang is adopted by most people. The phenomenon that a certain type of slang only belonged to one subculture group does not exist any longer. The usage of slang in the future will be common, popular, and universal. For instance, the college students adopt tubular (excellent) from surfing, and jam (to play music and dance or play an improvisation) from the language of Black musicians.3.2 Formation of English slangAs is mentioned above, the subculture groups are the cradle of English slang. Their special language habits gradually came into the eyes of the public and have finally gained essential social status as a language variety. About its form, slang doesnt have its own independent pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary. Most slang is a new formation of the old ones or the ever-existing words but with new meanings. But like standard English, slang also follows several ways of formation such as borrowing, shortening, compounding and blending.3.2.1 Borrowing Slang borrows words or absorbs elements from foreign languages such as German, French, Chinese, Indian etc. For example, kaput means having been destroyed or incapacitated. The word is an adoption of the German word kaputt, whose senses are similar to those of the English word. German in turn borrowed this word from the French gaming tables, where capot, as an adjective, meant “not having won a single trick at piquet.” It is first recorded in 1895. More examples are: Yen, from Cantonese yem, means a strong desire or inclination. Cinch, from Spanish cincha, means a certainty as in “dead cinch” and “it's a cinch that the horse will win the race.” Calaboose, from Spanish calabozo, means jail. Hamburger, from German Hamburg steak, has developed special slang terms such as make hamburger out of sb., which means beating vigorously. Nix, from German, means forbidding or refusing. 3.2.2 ShorteningShortening is a common method due to the informal and short usage of slang. When words are shortened, sounds can be eliminated from the beginning (grandma/grandmother gram) or the end (brother-broth) or both (detective-tec). Besides these, there are clipping, abbreviation and naming the initial letters. Examples: KO for kick off, AWOL (from military slang) for absent without official leave, cop for copper, tan for tough as nails, ID for identification card, B- girl for bar girl, amp for ampere, pop for popular music, flu for influenza etc.3.2.3 CompoundingFor many slang items, word + word structure is obvious. There are certain words that appear frequently in compound formations. In grammar, this phenomenon is called affixation. For this part, the formation of slang follows the same principle with English language. Examples: fat farm, bachelor mother, birdfarm, dum-dum, no-no, tiptop, fuddy-duddy, super-duper, megacost, megatravel, beatink, peaceink etc.3.2.4 BlendingIt is actually a combination of shortening and compounding. It put the words and meanings together, shorten them and form a new combinational meaning. A well-known example is brunch from breakfast and lunch, which means a meal that combines breakfast and lunch. And mingy, which is blended by mean and stingy.Nevertheless, most of the time people create slang because they just feel it too plain to say the Standard English or formal English. They want to get rid of the dull language mode. So they say give him the air instead of dismiss, stand somebody up instead of keep in waiting, cool