心理学专业英语基础 3-4章.ppt

CHAPTER 3,Cognitive Psychology,Cognitive Psychology,Perception 知觉Attention 注意Memory 记忆,Perception,Visual perceptual organisation 视知觉组织性Top-down theories of perception 自上而下加工的知觉理论Bottom-up theories of perception 自下而上加工的知觉理论The development of perception 知觉的发展,Visual perceptual organisation,Perception is the process of interpreting and organising the environmental information received by the senses.,知觉是对感官接受的环境信息进行解释和组织的过程。,Visual perception,Visual perceptual organisation,For visual perception,this involves taking the constantly fluctuating patterns of light which arrive from all over the environment,upside-down,onto our two-dimensional retinas and,Fluctuate 波动,变动;动摇,视觉认知，指接受来自周围环境的持续变化的光线模式，自上而下地投射到我们的二维视网膜，以及,Visual perceptual organisation,Detecting the shape of objects in the environment;Establishing location in three-dimensional space;Recognising an object in terms of its shape,size,brightness and colour.,In terms of 根据,觉察环境中物体的形状；在三维空间中建构物体的位置；根据这个物体的形状、大小、亮度和颜色来识别它。,Visual perceptual organisation,Brightness Contrast,Perception,Selective Attentionfocus of conscious awareness on a particular stimulus.,Change Blindness,Perceptual Organization:Gestalt,Visual Capturetendency for vision to dominate the other senses.Gestalt-an organized whole tendency to integrate pieces of information into meaningful wholes.,视觉捕捉视觉主宰其他感官的倾向。格式塔一个有组织地把分散信息整合成有意义的整体的倾向。,Perceptual Organization:Gestalt,Grouping:the perceptual tendency to organize stimuli into coherent groupsGrouping PrinciplesProximity-group nearby figures togetherSimilarity-group figures that are similarContinuity-perceive continuous patternsClosure-fill in gapsConnectedness-spots,lines,and areas are seen as unit when connected,组合：将一些刺激组合成连贯的整体的知觉倾向组合的原则临近性相似性连续性闭合性连接性,Perceptual Organization:Gestalt,Illusory Contours 虚假轮廓,Perceptual Organization:Gestalt,Grouping Principles,Perceptual Organization:Gestalt,Closure,Perceptual Organization:Gestalt,How are Gestalt grouping principles at work here?,Perceptual Organization:Gestalt,Impossible doghouse,Top-down theories of perception,Sometimes referred to as constructivist theories,these theories stress the factors in the construction of reality that go beyond the information received from the senses.Gregorys theory and perceptual set theory regard perception as a very active process,whereby the individuals past knowledge,expectations and stereotypes seek out sensory data to complete the picture.,有时指建构理论。这些理论认为对事实的建构过程中的因素对知觉的影响大于感官接收的信息。Gregory的理论和知觉定势理论把视觉当做一个非常活跃的加工过程，因为过去的知识、期待、以及刻板印象都会影响感觉信息。,Top-down theories of perception,Perceptual Constancyperceiving objects as unchanging even as illumination and retinal image changecolorshape size,知觉恒常性在映像和网膜成像变化的情况下，仍然把物体知觉为不变。颜色一致性形状一致性大小一致性,Perceptual Constancy,Perceptual Constancy,Top-down theories of perception,Illusions 错觉,Perceptual Illusions,Perceptual Illusions,Mller-Lyer Illusion,Perceptual Illusions,Visual perceptual organisation,Size-Distance Relationship,Perceptual Illusions,Perceptual Illusions,Perceptual Illusions,Perceptual Illusions,Illusory Depth,Top-down theories of perception,Perceptual Set:Schemas知觉定势：轮廓,What you see in the center is influenced by perceptual set.,Bottom-up theories of percption,These theories emphasise the richness of the information entering the eye and the way that perception can occur from using all the information available.Gibson believes perception occurs directly from sensation,feature detection theories examine the processes involved in assembling perception from sensations.,这些理论强调进入眼睛的信息丰富性，以及知觉可以通过使用所有可用的信息来发生的方式。吉布森认为视觉直接来自感觉，特征觉察理论检验了包含在通过由感觉汇集成为知觉过程中的加工。,Perception,The development of perception,Illusory Depth Explanation,The development of perception,Depth Perception:ability to see objects in three dimensions;allows us to judge distance.Binocular cues:retinal disparity:images from the two eyes differ;closer the object,the larger the disparityConvergence:neuromuscular cue;two eyes move inward for near objects,深度知觉：在三维空间内看到物体的能力。帮助我们判断距离。双眼线索，如：视网膜成像差异，即两个眼睛所获得的图像略有不同。距离越近，差异性越大。双眼辐合，神经肌线索，对于近的物体，两个眼睛向内运动。,The development of perception,The development of perception,Monocular Cuesrelative size:smaller image is more distantInterposition:closer object blocks distant objectrelative clarity:hazy object seen as more distantTexture:coarse-close;fine-distant,单眼线索相对大小：像越小，物体越远。重叠：近的物体阻挡远的物体（的像）。相对清晰度：越模糊，物体越远。质地（密度、结构级差）：粗糙的近，细密的远。,The development of perception,Relative Size,The development of perception,Interposition,The development of perception,Monocular Cues relative motion:closer objects seem to move fasterlinear perspective:parallel lines converge with distancerelative brightness:closer objects appear brighter,单眼线索相对运动：近的物体运动快。线性透视：平行线在远处汇合。相对亮度：较近的物体较亮。,The development of perception,Perspective Techniques,The development of perception,Light and Shadow,The development of perception,Visual Cliff,The development of perception,Sensory Restriction:Blakemore&Cooper,1970Kittens raised without exposure to horizontal lines later had difficulty perceiving horizontal bars.,Perception,Definition:The focusing and concentration of mental effort that usually results in conscious awareness of certain aspects of external sensory stimuli or mental experiences(although most study has focused on the former).定义：心理努力的聚集和集中状态，会引起意识对外界感觉刺激或内部心理经验的觉察（虽然大部分研究关注的是前者）。,Attention,The vast amount of sensory information from all our senses has to be cut down to manageable proportions while reading this you are probably not aware of the smells around you or the pressure on whatever part of your body you are resting on.由感官获得的大部分感觉信息被划分成可管理的很多部分。当你读这段文字的时候，你可能不会注意到周围的味道，或者是你身体倚靠的部位受到的压力。,Attention,Some studies have looked at focused or selective attention how certain stimuli are selected over others through allocating attention.一些研究关注的是注意的集中性或者选择性即通过注意分配，某些特定的刺激时如何被选择成为注意对象的。,Attention,Other studies have looked at divided attention how,within a limited capacity,attention can be allocated to more than one task at a time.其他研究关注的是注意的分散性即在注意资源有限的前提下，注意是如何在同一时间被分配到不同任务上的。,Attention,Research has shown that if tasks are practised enough,they become automatic,need less attention,and can be successfully performed with other tasks.研究显示，如果任务得到充分练习，就会成为自动加工，需要较少注意资源，并且可以和其他的任务一起成功完成。,Attention,Memory 记忆persistence of learning over time via the storage and retrieval of information通过储存、提取，对信息进行学习和保存Flashbulb Memory 闪回记忆a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event对于有显著情绪性的时刻或事件的清晰记忆,Memory,Memory as Information Processingsimilar to a computer write to file,save to disk,read from disk类似于电脑写文件，储存，读取,Memory,Encodingthe processing of information into the memory system.i.e.,extracting meaning编码：使信息进入记忆系统的加工过程，如提取意义,Memory,Storagethe retention of encoded information over time储存：已经编码的信息的长期保持,Memory,Retrievalprocess of getting information out of memory提取：从记忆中获取信息的加工过程,Memory,Sensory Memorythe immediate,initial recording of sensory information in the memory system感觉记忆，在记忆系统中对感觉信息的即时的、初级的记录Working Memoryfocuses more on the processing of briefly stored information工作记忆，短暂存储的信息加工,Memory,Short-Term Memoryactivated memory that holds a few items briefly短时记忆：激活的记忆中短暂维持的几个项目look up a phone number,then quickly dial before the information is forgottenLong-Term Memorythe relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system长时记忆：记忆系统中，保存相对持久且容量无限,Memory,A Simplified Memory Model,Encoding:Getting Information In,Automatic Processingunconscious encoding of incidental information对偶然发生信息的无意识编码Space,time,frequencywell-learned information较好学习的信息word meaningswe can learn automatic processing自动加工可以学习reading backwards,Encoding,Effortful Processingrequires attention and conscious effort需要注意和有意识地努力Rehearsalconscious repetition of information复述：有意识地重述信息to maintain it in consciousness to encode it for storage,Encoding,Ebbinghaus used nonsense syllables 艾宾浩斯的无意义字母串学习TUV ZOF GEK WAVthe more times practiced on Day 1,the fewer repetitions to relearn on Day 2Spacing Effectdistributed practice yields better long-term retention than massed practice,Encoding,Encoding,Semantic Encoding语义编码encoding of meaning,including meaning of wordsAcoustic Encoding听觉编码encoding of sound,especially sound of wordsVisual Encoding视觉编码encoding of picture images,What Do We Encode?,Encoding,Imagery表象mental pictures,a powerful aid to effortful processing,especially when combined with semantic encodingMnemonics记忆术memory aidsespecially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices,Encoding,Chunking组块organizing items into familiar,manageable unitslike horizontal organization-1776149218121941often occurs automaticallyuse of acronyms利用缩写ARITHMETIC 算术-A Rat In Toms House Might Eat Toms Ice Cream,Encoding,Organized information is more easily recalled,Encoding:Chunking,Hierarchies 层级关系complex information broken down into broad concepts and further subdivided into categories and subcategories.,Encoding,Encoding,Imagery(visualEncoding),Meaning(semanticEncoding),Organization,Chunks,Hierarchies,Iconic Memory图像记忆a momentary sensory memory of visual stimulia photographic or picture image memory lasting no more that a few tenths of a secondEchoic Memory回声记忆momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli,Storage:Retaining Information,Short-Term Memory limited in duration and capacity“magical”number 7+/-2,Storage:Short-Term Memory,Storage:Long-Term Memory,How does storage work?Karl Lashley(1950)rats learn mazelesion cortex test memoryit was a site of learning and memory storage(i.e.an engram 印记，痕迹)in the brain.,Storage:Long-Term Memory,Broca(1960s)The production of language has been linked to the Brocas area since Pierre Paul Broca reported impairments in two patients.They had lost the ability to speak after injury to the posterior inferior frontal gyrus（额叶回后部）of the brain.,Synaptic changes 突触变化Long-term Potentiationincrease in synapses firing potential after brief,rapid stimulationStrong emotions make for stronger memoriessome stress hormones boost learning and retention,Storage:Long-Term Memory,Explicit Memory 外显记忆memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and declare.also called declarative memory.陈述性记忆hippocampus-neural center in limbic system（边缘系统）that helps process explicit memories for storage.Implicit Memory 内隐记忆retention independent of conscious recollection.also called procedural memory.程序性记忆,Storage:Long-Term Memory,MRI scan of hippocampus(in red)海马,Storage:Long-Term Memory,Recall 回忆measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier as on a fill-in-the-blank testRecognition再认Measure of memory in which the person has only to identify items previously learned as on a multiple-choice test,Retrieval:Getting Information Out,Relearning重学memory measure that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material a second timePriming启动activation,often unconsciously,of particular associations in memory,Retrieval,Deja Vu(French)-already seencues from the current situation may subconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier similar experienceIve experienced this before.“Deja-vu现象，原文为法语d j vu，中文翻译为“即视感”，简单而言就是“似曾相识”，未曾经历过的事情或场景仿佛在某时某地经历过的似曾相识之感。,Retrieval Cues,Mood-congruent Memory 心境一致性记忆tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with ones current mood memory,emotions,or moods serve as retrieval cuesState-dependent Memorywhat is learned in one state(while one is high,drunk,or depressed)can more easily be remembered when in same state,Retrieval Cues,Retrieval Cues,After learning to move a mobile by kicking,infants had their learning reactivated most strongly when retested in the same rather than a different context(Butler&Rovee-Collier,1989).,Forgetting can occur at any memory stage.As we process information,we filter,alter,or lose much of it.,Forgetting,Amnesia-the loss of memory 失忆症is a condition in which ones memory is lost.The causes of amnesia have traditionally been divided into categories.Functional causes are psychological factors,such as mental disorder,post-traumatic stress or,in psychoanalytic terms,defense mechanisms.,Forgetting,Information never enters the long-term memory.,Forgetting as encoding failure,Externalevents,Sensorymemory,Short-termmemory,Long-termmemory,Attention,Encoding,Encoding,Encodingfailure leadsto forgetting,Ebbinghaus forgetting curve over 30 days-initially rapid,then levels off with time.,Forgetting as encoding failure,The forgetting curve for Spanish learned in school.,Forgetting as encoding failure,Forgetting can result from failure to retrieve information from long-term memory.,Forgetting as retrival failure,Externalevents,Attention,Encoding,Encoding,Retrieval failureleads to forgetting,Retrieval,Learning some items may disrupt retrieval of other information.Proactive(forward acting)Interference前摄抑制disruptive effect of prior learning on recall of new information.Retroactive(backwards acting)Interference倒摄抑制disruptive effect of new learning on recall of old information.,Interference,Interference,Retroactive Interference,Interference,Motivated Forgetting动机性遗忘people unknowingly revise memoriesRepression压抑defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts,feelings,and memories,Interference,We filter information and fill in missing piecesMisinformation Effect错误信息效应incorporating misleading information into ones memory of an event.Source Amnesia来源遗忘attributing to the wrong source an event that we experienced,heard about,read about,or imagined.,Memory Construction,Eyewitnesses reconstruct memories when questioned,Memory Construction,Depiction of actual accident,Leading question:“About how fast were the carsgoing when they smashed intoeach other?”,Study repeatedly to boost recallSpend more time rehearsing or actively thinking about the materialMake material personally meaningfulUse mnemonic devices associate with peg（标记性）words-something already storedmake up storychunk-acronyms,Improve Your Memory,Activate retrieval cues-mentally recreate situation and moodRecall events while they are fresh-before you encounter misinformationMinimize interference Test your own knowledgerehearsedetermine what you do not yet know,Improve Your Memory,CHAPTER 3,Developmental Psychology,Developmental Psychology a branch of psychology that studies physical,cognitive and social change throughout the life span.,Prenatal Development and the Newborn,40 days 45 days 2 months 4 months,Prenatal Development and the Newborn,Rooting Reflex 觅食反射tendency to open mouth,and search for nipple when touched on the cheekPreferences 偏好human voices and facesfacelike imagessmell and sound of mother,Prenatal Development and the Newborn,Prenatal Development and the Newborn,Habituation习惯化decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation,Prenatal Development and the Newborn,Having habituated to the old stimulus,newborns preferred gazing at a new one.,Infancy and Childhood:Physical Development,Maturation 成熟biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior.relatively uninfluenced by experience.,Infancy and Childhood:Physical Development,Babie