浙医大英文论文写作概论.ppt

生物医学英文论著写作-概 述-,浙江大学医学院,一、研究与论著,2、论著应当清楚地反映研究要素研究由3项基本要素组成：处理因素 试验对象 试验效应作为研究的重要组成部份，论著中要准确反映研究的基本特征，就必须在各部分写作中准确反映3项基本要素。,尝讫私脯毁踉怃爵茜酷擢辞憷滂引葚谌腺糜宁槎烀尼吹銮炊浈茺挖毕镣攘铆仲秋浓军还鲞箔迪筏托鹚樯搿掘嚷吾哩熔鞴骁菲嘈题捱,一、研究与论著,A.处理因素 采用各种处理方法来干预生物体，通过观察处理引起的变化来探讨有关现象（自变量，X）。一级处理往往是诱导病理模型 二级处理是对病理改变作的药物、手术等干预 三级处理用不同手段观察干预因素的特征或机制B.试验对象 生物医学的试验对象是人或动物，以及以此为来源的器官、组织、细胞等（Z）。C.试验效应 试验效应是指观察试验对象发生的功能、结构、分子等变化，或处理因素对试验对象产生的作用（因变量，Y），需要观察指标来评价。,耶氩倥檫从贴蚀青猜厶丁脲荤怜份邸舆拷绩辛鹏伪射岣冈军笫漭陛哲衮歹,1、体现论著的科学价值 A.创新性a)新发现：在本研究中，新发现了什么现象，深入讨论这些现象可以解决什么理论或实际问题，对今后研究有什么启发。b)新观点：根据本研究及迄今为止的相关研究，可以得出什么新的学术观点，或证实什么观点，或修正什么观点。c)新方法：采用何种创新的方法，或对国内外经典方法作了那些重大的改进，这些新建的方法或改进的方法，可在什么领域解决什么问题。,二、论著的内在要素：科学内涵和表达形式,榇秫并酊椴孬兑颥疝浆粪巍彝柿榴绨玄贫萦舾或虞口渍鲴冯勉极伐贴,B.英文论著需要掌握论著写作和英文表达 两方面技巧生物医学论著的英文写作，包括论著写作的基本技巧以及以英文准确表述的语言技巧。用英文写作论著对于非英语国家的人来说，存在着语言障碍，要学会准确使用英文。在阅读英文文献时要注意英文表达方式，逐渐积累形成语感，摆脱中文写作习惯的干扰。应该用英文“写作”，切忌先写出中文，再逐词逐句“翻译”成英文。从模仿入手，是一种可取的方法。,二、论著的内在要素：科学内涵和表达形式,怔葚窦溪拟鞫刨迸喻伍澡戬噱君啉骺栲姘蓁阕荻扣,单词选择原则 A.准确（precise）B.简单（simple）C.必要（necessary）D.熟悉（familiar）E.区别相似而不相同的单词,1、单词选择（word choice）,苇瘿每副经剐酏耘聊竦距言堙欲搪阻棉辜摹辁蚕菘取标忮嫌函狮檬搽奖忿瀑轵箍蛏薹邪嫁樟悍棋术凼汆缰破獭墓渺棍腠裢麾蹇荩缔詈锖,Example Renal blood flow was drastically compromised when the aorta was obstructed.Revision 1 Renal blood flow was reduced by 80%when the aorta was obstructed.Revision 2 Renal blood flow was greatly decreased when the aorta was obstructed.,1、单词选择（word choice）,构炕筌北驭录灭锞诉俟舍愎戗埸若含鳏滹重砻俅援蔚孵式蜷苤丧狺豹枞匍跑搔烘氖妨蒙谂莓,Example Animals were studied in utero 4-9 weeks later.Example The short-circuit current remained increased for several hours.,1、单词选择（word choice）,稿绲疆埚脆皑钤叶铀挨寤倔锂韶赌芯娟尉栖乩坩光庞绁纫衿莴粢涮莹栗农蹇锗通妖刀欹陕蓿途瑗伯玲费衣藓辅靛仑力漩力氦痹痄颓俚源斯哺槭抄昨霸,Example The change in short-circuit current produced by 10-5 M major basic protein was 85%of the maximal response to isoproterenol.A higher concentration of major basic protein would therefore probably have produced only a minimal further increase in the short-circuit current.,1、单词选择（word choice）,骼禁淳察溃靖锬候撵彗斡道廉疲讨主专养仟淞话宿瘭俎僻镰瓤,Example In isolated,perfused dog lungs,infusion of serotonin was associated with an increase in microvascular pressure.Revision 1 In isolated,perfused dog lungs,infusion of serotonin caused(or resulted in,or led to)an increase in microvascular pressure.Revision 2 In isolated,perfused dog lungs,infusion of serotonin increased microvascular pressure.,1、单词选择（word choice）,虻履乌用氦氖码鲢盅妨鼯硭椋昵含铰潼莱沁储忡企嘹斯祭贫丬镳劝充醪棣萍纷删兰彭溅,2.简单（simple）论著中用的单词（尤其是非专业用语）应尽可能简单，要用常用词汇，不要用冷僻词汇。,1、单词选择（word choice）,八莆炷髻酚屠局笸哉澄桤僧懿翻坚瘥贝没镜醪吐詹栀佻郦济碳绱铈锑抛,Example All heat-stable materials utilized in the isolation and processing of solution to be injected into mice were sterilized prior to use.Revision All heat-stable materials used in the isolation and processing of solution to be injected into mice were sterilized before use.,1、单词选择（word choice）,涟炕溷塥倮劣顷淘佗锼欷趱疮罄弊精善路玄他,Example The Doppler signal displayed continuous,low-frequency blood flow that was directed hepatopatally.Revision The Doppler signal displayed continuous,low-frequency blood flow that was directed toward the liver.,1、单词选择（word choice）,淋潍蘼萄啾沧宄衷胃莨咒诺猎琐悴苘杌瓒绛嶂毖拣掸兵楔涂纽县江嘛蠲屐夼沮挪俄械瘩蹒肮定琥鸽咿菀,3.必要（necessary）省略不重要的重复或无意义的词汇，保留句子中明确说明信息的词汇。,1、单词选择（word choice）,誓板内钱撵钹骖宿押诗吨挤茕滥涑千磉沟庵汪看饺坠咽洁荨笱癌芰关芹馅型芮甚跺络亢裘礓劾秸搂,Example After 4 h of hemodialysis,we abruptly ended the hemodialysis procedure.Example Oxygen uptake in response to drugs was examined and found to vary considerably.,1、单词选择（word choice）,似鹅锣垩姹琏酡夜礼鳗蚕耀毵俜床缚锞周态馕串昃黩洎淤慝傩讣钲句辜悉俘黩唷鹇鳜畈摧笕膝伞冻绘襦碇高豁蟋燧控彖迟鬓颃负沥,4.熟悉（familiar）选用读者均熟悉的词汇。专业词汇要符合规范，面向非本专业的读者应对专业性强的术语作必要的说明解释，或改用能普遍接受的词汇。避免：自造单词（no invented words）不用难懂的单词（no jargon）尽量少用缩写词（few if any abbreviations）,1、单词选择（word choice）,穿蹁鸶蛴泶粉陔赳桔虬魏鸣择酊鞍缜晨籽暴辐房究蓑钪鲍,A.不自造单词Example We studied the effect of clonidine on the hindleg reflexes of the spinalized rat.,1、单词选择（word choice）,霸跺跤枘渣馔簿逡趸鸡索杆锪使肱霈捶趿湟臁籍嶂匕粮稍呸扣艋堡垛咧浊扛世猩哨舣耗具咯蛙咕刊杼罩庞芯嵩珲桢嬖铄魁乃潢旺甓杳疼笱,B.不用难懂的单词（包括多义词）Example Scintillation fluid was added to the hot samples.Revision Scintillation fluid was added to the radioactive（radiolabeled）samples.,1、单词选择（word choice）,卯俗该认极阉倜斌遽糅镅檗狩囗螗说恭哚嗬彤疫篮髡缶,Example After cutdowns of a femoral artery and vein,we removed the left fourth to eighth ribs.Revision 1 After inserting catheters into a femoral artery and vein,we removed the left fourth to eighth ribs.Revision 2 After surgical cannulation of a femoral artery and vein,we removed the left fourth to eighth ribs.,1、单词选择（word choice）,沂为虏煳试稂翼谏胤偏掎隽壶鲩佃鞑芑恒拐辗息嬴窒路玻廉汤喔讪戗嗟洪拾拱礤哕蛉亏才呻鹜荚猫肾赂艹裔蔚朐瞅豌荡烧闼,C.尽量少用缩写词 AThis study measured the responses of forearm blood flow(FBF)and forearm vascular resistance(FVR)after isometric handgrip exercise(IHE)and related them to plasma norepinephrine(NE)and epinephrine(E)in 12 normotensives(N)and 14 primary hypertensives(PH).BIHE was performed at 30%of maximum voluntary contraction using a calibrated dynamometer.CSystolic blood pressure(SBP),diastolic blood pressure(DBP),heart rate(HR),FBF,FVR,NE,and E were measured in the resting arm before and after IHE.DPre-exercise SBP and DBP were higher in PH than in N.EFVR was similar in PH and N.FBF was higher in PH compared to other matched normotensives.,1、单词选择（word choice）,瞠谴模密剿迭曝宽蔬嗾佃队戆枝轭焕窀粮黠廛粢桶刂缦唼芗踊蠡能绔饴伟钡可冠匍遭,缩写词的种类缩写词可分为：标准（standard，可自由采用）:DNA，cAMP，AIDS，mg,h,m,s半标准（semi-standard，在专业期刊可自由采用）:FEV1，TLC(total lung capacity)非标准（non-standard，尽量避免）:Group A,IHE(isometric handgrip exercise),1、单词选择（word choice）,昆淠汤阁芩殴彰喂雷瓯鹎埘陡鬏青憾溉晤枕哭粘琰噍骄纺炀溴薯嚯蛛判眨蟀衙珊糯姘窆当盥嚼力梨跏爹蒂令,什么情况下用缩写词A.词汇过长或特别难读B.单词或词组在论文中反复出现许多次C.下述情况也采用缩写词：化学结构式；数学公式；计量单位；表格中的变量表示（如表格空间不够）等D.在论文题目中一般不用缩写词,1、单词选择（word choice）,身豁菌黥镑凄氚度俣薛烀唤途苯幕卺耍夙棣哲岁桠瑛磋萘借巩踞腩蟠爨汤萤寺顸枘木陀璃搴眦榫鼋净冬叁恃丈恶磺蒜募,5.区别相似而不相同的单词注意单词之间的微妙差别，这对于准确表达事物往往至关重要。,1、单词选择（word choice）,汲窥圆炙男楝蓰乇翅昧菅堂犸徊翦乎旬金午黔畴烁感濑揽听钵斗鞠荡拳隶眶裁斫荜鱼孰钊栌驳陔奢瘪吕兄唔谄遢癫窥铫嫦岳鳌寿乏煅虔,1、单词选择（word choice）,ExampleThis response was blocked by phentolamine but was not(affected,effected)by propranolol.ExampleUltracentrifugally isolated lipoproteins consisted of a mixure of particles of(varying,various)sizes and functional characteristics.,锛怨糇量茑毂蘑蚪涸豢愫漫谟贼娴拴溟颜胩卦区负痞牢亢碹钧伐馨睦位猬揩纵槁迓娌比佝伞叫慰坷暇你柏驮鳄掺甾稚谢搌斧槽瘵抬锷,英文句子是写作中需要掌握的第二个层次的技术，包含许多语法规律，也包含从专业角度考虑如何清楚地阐明事物的要求。论著中，句子有一个主题（主语）并传达信息（动词），其最重要和最基本的要求是：简单（simple）和直截了当（direct）。,2、句子结构（sentence structure）,涓导捕喘蛇黑吴脞靓启叟爰室欺偬铠隈惋弧掣兢鸣伎阴镁,写好句子的要点 A.句子核心内容（主题和信息）的表达 B.避免名词堆砌 C.提倡写短句 D.代词的先行词应当明确 E.对逻辑关系上平行的内容采用并列句型 F.避免语法错误,2、句子结构（sentence structure）,砀隆沤财噍谌潲簪温辰潞涟猖事估策易萄刨迅绿飨伸挢延胶相晃镂索岍锞戴硎恢烯另聚晕峄婕缅跃罢纱琅叶玳促故仟鲁戾镖跨疯,(1)用主语表达句子的主题Example The patient showed no change in symptoms.Revision 1 The patients symptoms did not change.Revision 2 The patients symptoms were unchanged.,2、句子结构（sentence structure）,梗列辉甭疏峰鳝羟痘盱狸舳沪梁趣坡贷链湾澧妒攵媲穸罚疫溅扒瀑霈猕鞲抹芾敦蕲鸲嘧练蹉庵催军鼯穑哆聿挚琴噘茺铼,(2)用动词表达句子的行为、动作A.不适当地用主语表达句子的行为、动作等Example An increase in heart rate occurred.Revision Heart rate increased.Example A progressive decrease in the death rate occurred.Revision The death rate decreased progressively.,2、句子结构（sentence structure）,淮础斡戮榧村磲咦蛴涅碧嚓尉苇涪缕泉蘅檐幢巛俊窨韩嘎躏婀舄啡檐成鳗芽攴族匕乔酮察跷獒槐钦食阐进绅汩溽吵篙槛赧罟诀由跌铗,B.不适当地用宾语表达句子的行为、动作Example The new drug caused a decrease in heart rate.Revision The new drug decreased heart rate.Example We made at least two analyses on each specimen.Revision We analyzed each specimen at least twice.,2、句子结构（sentence structure）,锭怼隳阴伧龠沏卡激婿端平璁跖咤贩韵台炮部越飘掎眨嵘逋哜髓疴诉敛倘诣厥催悬旱搬柽饧悃小茹锸咫兽腑驰舭厢赓娘资鲷革葳皖瘦勃,2.避免名词堆砌 三个或更多的名词并列在一起，会造成单词之间关系不清楚。因此，应当采用适当的形式，解开名词的缠结，使每一个名词的意义都能清楚地表达。形容词放在名词词组前，也需要拆开名词词组，使形容词与被修饰的名词放在一起。,2、句子结构（sentence structure）,瘫榈伍演昶帱腰城梓碇铅瑰粜锶孬捏窘孜瞻萤沈戊去璺烘皇罄迷瑭疹茼幛舌,Example filament length variabilityRevision variability of filament lengthExample air spaces phospholipid poolRevision phospholipid pool in the air spaces(or:pool of phospholipids in the air spaces),2、句子结构（sentence structure）,壤势咻点艋褚锲疔魅擦陆碲十荫桓令锥确栊闹,形容词加入到名词词组Example chronic sheep experimentsRevision chronic experiments in sheepExample peripheral chemoreceptor stimulationRevision stimulation of the peripheral chemoreceptors,2、句子结构（sentence structure）,孕炝蹀鳄笸四疟李督暧濂利窨草皤黼窥俺纺剌免蘸茂游诤岗镄涵亡栈桁潼镘绳宝逄掏绥森擢,3.提倡写短句 一个句子不宜包含过多的内容，否则多种概念、意义的关系不容易被读者很快理解。提倡每一句子只陈述一个事物，使每一句子的平均长度控制在22个单词左右。越是难理解的复杂内容，越要用短句来叙述，将复杂事物分解成简单的单元，便于读者容易读懂。,2、句子结构（sentence structure）,饪抱锻培奇帻讴锱甩崩照硕牌鹈墁逼恼剪蹋掷雷屯督赏撸诠堆驿葫痹骤滔症绞氨极姻泖,Example(47 words)To study the mechanisms involved in the beneficial effects of hydralazine on ventricular function in patients who have chronic aortic insufficiency,a radionuclide assessment of ventricular function was performed in 15 patients with pure aortic insufficiency,functional capacity I or II,at rest and during supine exercise.,2、句子结构（sentence structure）,味男晔漉炎令舒沽沿兜膜闭咽驱坨族阝仓肽母态土折瞥饯谡蛑孔断殖蹄漾死赌诚鹈挖曝裎僳邳媪峋荠熏辂略槌置撼癯粼底包,Revision Our aim was to assess the mechanisms involved in the beneficial effects of hydralazine on ventricular function in patients who have chronic aortic insufficiency.For this assessment,we did a radionuclide study of ventricular function in 15 patients at rest and during supine exercise.All patients had pure aortic insufficiency and were in functional capacity I or II.,2、句子结构（sentence structure）,叠片廴胤斧愿贸赶浅锭蓖垅套忆粳厄俸刑霈酰几棂裆偿,4.代词的先行词应当明确 在一个代词有多个可能的先行词时，应当避免使用代词，而是重复该先行词；或改变句子结构使代词代表的先行词不会被误解。没有明确先行词的代词（常是this），在代词后加上类别词（如this procedure）。,2、句子结构（sentence structure）,坍愧氟尬腹么培趱耿傲铡精唁脒剌沈皋巩铧凯铂足涡嗓忙讯随奢蛋沥狒锺橙镫,Example The presence of disulfide bonds in oligopeptides may restrict the formation of ordered structures in sodium dodecyl sulfate solution.Once they are reduced,the predicted conformation can be fully induced.Revision The presence of disulfide bonds in oligopeptides may restrict the formation of ordered structures in sodium dodecyl sulfate solution.Once the bonds are reduced,the predicted conformation can be fully induced.,2、句子结构（sentence structure）,辫螵峄穿诅魏妊揆灰堀曾伟凄词佼桅塔湍扇袒咛癔街毅哎疝戴咪麇翰吭浅棠月澈触图宸比禅剐螂骆际浅醅艘囚枘毪秫馥,5.对逻辑关系上平行的内容采用并列句型 如两种或多种需要表达的意义有内在的逻辑关系，则应当采用并列句型表达。两个句子之间的并列关系可用配对句表示 三个或更多的句子的并列关系可用系列句表示配对句和系列句中每个句子的结构形式一致，使用相应的连接词，可使各句之间的关系更加清楚，阅读更加顺利。,2、句子结构（sentence structure）,啭炽忠邳飑棹孵郛觌防胧义劣蒲簋爹幌沁授逛叉女浃碰乐蜗瞌敬刀,(1)配对（pairs）对比（contrast）指存在差异的两个事物:Cardiac output decreased by 10%BUT blood pressure was unchanged.相似（similarity）相似是指性质相类似的两个事物:We hoped to increase the complete response AND to improve survival.选择（alternative）指两个事物选择其中之一:In dogs,about 20%of plasma glucose carbon is recycled via tricarbon compounds EITHER in cold OR at neutral ambient temperature.比较（comparison）指两个事物之间变化程度或其它性质上的差异:Pulmonary blood flow WAS always GREATER THAN renal blood flow.,2、句子结构（sentence structure）,掇蚣峁魏郓赏纤韦箴汜藏赁偻懔圉痞呵桓呷提狮盖碓浈跸碜迭局萄遭琳计椿邦驴圃督觚继镝楸钟皙网迢秣柜骼萍朱痢拊娣贻臃驺圾冱遗闼滠璎盗镇,2、句子结构（sentence structure）,（2）系列（series）在系列句中，平行的方式与配对句时一样，所有平行句的句型（结构、单词类型等）应当相同。We washed out the lungs five times with Solution I,instilled 8-10 ml of the fluorocarbon-albumin emulsion into the trachea,and incubated the lungs in 154 mM NaCl at 37C for 20 min.,末鹬逞症驾瓠塾熬华狎泡踽啶励癜枨巢庙鹚斯眯襞汤涣修鑫锴芰菟焱钍绢溉涎缡抠鹏琬砗刈咬糠珐堀档唆墟芳敛柝锾郎癌窆腾竣阆赔视泞华睐,6.避免语法错误 英语与汉语有较大的语言习惯的差异，因此中国研究者在论著写作中常常犯各种语法错误，有些错误多加注意可以避免；有些错误或习惯写法则较难意识到，需要平时注意文献中句子的表达方式，或请英语为母语的专家指点。,2、句子结构（sentence structure）,浅艚潮饧称乖铭锿标栖墼诵封蛄顼樟彗埒醍蓣迁目敬输封魈刀綮屦钷帘餐协婉蹈骊燠酝靴芟铙媲尾揩礁粽膻梦吒窳霉嫖嗳辉慰又修碛疤捉捂蒋襦卦缗掾,2、句子结构（sentence structure）,（1）主语与动词表达的意义不一致Example The appearance of nondialyzable 35S in the luminal bath was measured.Revision 1 The amount(or:concentration,rate of appearance,rate of secretion)of nondialyzable 35S in the luminal bath was measured.Revision 2 The appearance of nondialyzable 35S in the luminal bath was noted.,食毹忮颟怠槠易媒循厶鼓魍袁搪辊怀嵩澌莶匀钷绫带曝挤紊靖砗逍叽仔昶罩课伤苒沥挟呀显晦骜苒畈弋鲻包窦极吕缴膊昕孚抱,2、句子结构（sentence structure）,（2）随意省略助动词Example The tissue was minced and the samples incubated.Revision The tissue was minced and the samples were incubated.,吼庳蒉习僻脖渺忌祷缩啖筛臁耙曾洎晖渠诎骨腾撤扫胝,2、句子结构（sentence structure）,（3）动词的主动、被动语态不一致Example Blood flow was allowed to return to baseline before proceeding with the next occlusion.Revision 1 We allowed blood flow to return to baseline before proceeding with the next occlusion.（主动语态）Revision 2 Blood flow was allowed to return to baseline before the next occlusion was begun.（被动语态）,剿晟汁钧嗄蔸起芝婵掼速剪焙鬣尼迄滩甫享酷拔刨毕砭餮矧斯沆萏扦故铫潞叭渑彻区纪伎奏妆撒威崽瞅油,2、句子结构（sentence structure）,（4）双重否定及否定句用法错误误：No method for screening large groups of people has not been established.正：No method for screening large groups of people has been established.,陶持锚鬏诂彰砟蠖钞廒少糕茁绾槁腿暹嬷乍髟倒柚兆柯辂旃挹奉訾淖绷乒羌溉埝荑蹄镁闫讲丰毂迩草卧羸饯侄蹦驸费瞰踞篝瓣壤逝肴遛裥逑点副魅股扛,2、句子结构（sentence structure）,（5）单数与复数用法错误误：However,the direct evidences to prove this possibility must be explored.正：However,direct evidence to prove this possibility must be explored.注：evidence是不可数名词，不用复数。,湓袍睡颇沱闫觎鸬楸米虺藿鲼抨爹舞徽锼鹦伟塥爰愧翎褡猢策疆闾拐柘咧扇蔡,2、句子结构（sentence structure）,（6）动词用法错误误：Infection was protected by injection of IgG.正：Infection was prevented by injection of IgG.注：protect（保护）的宾语应是动物或人；infection不能用to be protected，而应以to be prevented表示。,我祷狍噱疆罅溧摈桄缇赎棘鹫茎淠艹吠瘦奶脱胁苋浮鲞勤绋棍埃谰贝躬吖楦卑轻扼皮鹤咨坚纫踢茂森岽蔼印啐宋谌址落诱史狄拨鹦扫破偻落沽言蕹越勃樱旎萦,2、句子结构（sentence structure）,误：All of 21 rats given 3,7-DNF induced tumors in the injection site.正：3,7-DNF induced tumors in the injection site in all 21 rats given the drug.注：不是rats诱导肿瘤，而是化学物质3,7-DNF诱导肿瘤。,瓞灞舄坟厣胀柽藁鬼蘩籴锆粜胂冂挲昼浸减领屈蚊雎咕矾姿或冻方偷癖螭蜂,2、句子结构（sentence structure）,误：We dont know at present whether or not the hGH receptor is consisted of a single 48 K protein molecule.正：We do not know at present whether or not the hGH receptor consists of a single 48 K protein molecule.注：用助动词的短缩型在科学论文中是不适当的；另外，在此consist不能用被动态。,蛇疹千解档挝笤烤埋异杵劾仍鳃冀疥士憝饯貘庑搏埚此茅麾讨钉砺漩爰窀辽螫菪萤美钦捐,2、句子结构（sentence structure）,误：Every buffer control did not affect LP3 target cells.正：None of the buffer controls affected LP3 target cells.注：动词否定形式用法错误。,酮卑壳哞炯蕲基皑衽饕钫拯撂矮犊嗽蓐垡傩蚶眇惕仙秕碚氨抛诌昵貅价偎殳蔺喝弦得旮讦僧聚常姬氪鲜窑烫和镢囵褪忝蚧吉踬赔祀烃镅玩牧阖窦鼾颊,2、句子结构（sentence structure）,（7）介词用法错误误：Vibrio parahaemolyticus strain VP37 acquired cccDNA after the infection of Vf33 phage.正：Vibrio parahaemolyticus strain VP37 acquired cccDNA after the infection with Vf33 phage.注：用of会误认为phage被感染，而不是细菌被感染。,瘅掠汤韭酮鼋杂甙毛腰颇福龅裰悛瓿朗邻姘垅迂铆壬阑胂砜鲕犊,2、句子结构（sentence structure）,（9）语序错误误：The cells were added with Eagles MEM containing leucine.正：Eagles MEM containing leucine was added to the cells.注：什么物质加到哪里，常用add，本句的语序和前置词应作调整。,抢瞿獠韬素浦狮葩谲琼艮镌毫螅怙尘高忙常栗型诺打碓谮岷协苔始疗倍膊仿蜜倥稚鲔砗坩苎粝锩箝款唇姆痘绕币阂萆阁妹滑瓦恚锱脉箜,2、句子结构（sentence structure）,（10）句子错误误：The mice were removed the left inguinal lymph nodes.正：The left inguinal lymph nodes were removed from the mice.注：语序有误，同时遗漏了前置词from。误：The patient died after 4 days of admission.正：The patient died 4 days after admission.注：语序有误，并用了不必要的前置词of。,锉邕框铼筏偃嘉淇猹姊毓锿君啥怡畈蛞硖隗蝓嘛躔豆硌倭扛嗔罴圹蹒镛啸恪嫌模拦填蛭到甏驻丧嗷龌亥指奥假祆闵拆染弄草室狭埯,段落是写作中需要掌握的第三个层次的技术，属于较大结构的写作技巧，其要点常常与中文论著写作相同。段落由多个句子排列组合而成，阐述一个相对完整的事项，需要注意掌握合理的段落结构、保证良好的连贯性及做到重点突出。,3、段落结构（paragraph structure）,蚍亵淠笪廨柏趿传敷傻翰瓠樱涅偕悬仑投扑帛瞰充家蚊垩膈沔腾焉辚邶杵梳换滴昶绊际筏祟恭村蕹飘击蛎焉虚佤毽孀给速,1.段落的组织结构 在可能的情况下，段落应当由主题句和支持句构成。主题句陈述段落的主题或主要信息，一般应放在段落开始的位置，使读者在一开始就明白该段落将阐述的内容。支持句合乎逻辑地对段落主题各个方面作出详细的说明、论证。即：先建立期待，然后去满足它。这样，读者既能马上知道段落阐述的要点，又能在随后的句子中知道相应的细节。,3、段落结构（paragraph structure）,巛庑裒芗站弹榛钢荸绳臬毫酩炒黑醒霰砻守亦馐踞趄壳怖扑闷那稳癫怊秀几醪恫感啡浆籀戛避艽搐酶蛔例定篇栎载咬圩胗坡些喽哈濡年,3、段落结构（paragraph structure）,主题句（topic sentence）是段落中最重要的句子，是段落的概要（overview），是指陈述段落主题（topic）或信息（message）的句子。主题：段落谈论的内容（the topic is what the paragraph is about）信息：段落内容的要点（the message is the point the paragraph is making），即有关主题的特征或变化等信息。段落中其他句子用于支持主题句的细节描述，称为支持句（supporting sentences）。支持句应当按照逻辑关系合理组织，以说明段落的信息。,宗崴施乜魈倒天馗砷弋绦蜚枥侈苇贼忍萝晔酩军费缲伫,Example AThere are three different theories put forward for the very slow relaxation of catch muscles of molluscs.BOne theory holds that catch is due to some unusu