建筑学毕业设计过程材料—外文翻译—王宗佳.doc

（2013届）毕业设计文献翻译题 目：嘉兴市新城街道资产经营管理有限公司综 合楼工程建筑设计方案 姓名： 王 宗 佳 学 院： 建筑工程学院 专业： 建 筑 学 班级： 建筑082 学 号： 200851685212 指导教师： 王 德 海 导师学科： 高层建筑设计 导师职称： 讲 师 教务处制2011 年 11 月1 日 嘉兴学院外文文献翻译译文1外 文 题 目：SPACE EFFICIENCY IN HIGH-RISE OFFICE BUILDINGS 专业班级： 建筑082 学生姓名： 王宗佳 学号 200851685212 一、 外文原文SPACE EFFICIENCY IN HIGH-RISE OFFICE BUILDINGSWriter: Ayin SEV and Aydan ÖZGENAbstract: High-rise office buildings, which are developed as a response to population growth, rapid urbanization and economic cycles, are indispensable for a metropolitan city development. This statement holds true for today; however, the relationship between cost and benefit is more complex in todays global marketplace. The space efficiency, as well as the shape and geometry of the high-rise building need to satisfy the value and cost of the development equation. Space efficiency, which is determined by the size of the floor slab, dimension of the structural elements and rationalized core, goes along with the financial benefit.Keywords: high-rise office building; space efficiency ; floor slab; gross floor area ;net floor area; structural system, core configuration.By the end of 1990s, at more than 30 stories, net to gross floor area ratios of 70-75% were common in office buildings (Table 2) (Davis Langdon and Everest, 1997). However, Yeang (1995) stated in his book “The Skyscraper: Bioclimatic ally Considered” that net-to-gross floor area should not be less than 75%, while 80% to 85% is considered appropriate. Wherever the tall building is being constructed, achieving suitable space efficiency is not easy, since it is adversely affected by height as core and structural elements expand to satisfy the requirements of vertical circulation and resistance to lateral loads. Space efficiency can be increased by the lease span, which is defined as the distance between the core and exterior wall. Factors affecting the design of high-rise buildings vary from country to country, such as local climate, zoning regulations, cultural conditions, technological opportunities, and etc. For instance, in Germany, where building codes dictate shallow floor slabs of 8.0 m, efficiencies of 60-70% are common, whereas Londons Canary Wharf Tower, can achieve a net to-gross ratio in excess of 80% with floor slabs of 2500 m2, and 11.0 m lease span. In this respect, when the high-rise office buildings of Turkey are investigated, conceivable space efficiency is not achieved when compared with the examples from the world. As Watts and et al. (2007) stated in their article that “fat is happy”, the highest office buildings of Turkey are happy, however, they are not so successful in respect to space efficiency. Therefore this research tends to compare and reveal the similarities and differences between the tallest office buildings at abroad and in Turkey in terms of space efficiency.DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS FOR HIGH-RISE OFFICE BUILDINGSThe study is based on the ten tallest office buildings in the world and in Turkey individually, which are registered by Council on Tall Buildings and Urban Habitat (CTBUH, 2008) in November 2008 and also recorded in E (2008) and SkyscraperP (2008), as shown in Table1. All of the sample buildings are landmarks of their cities, and also are designed by internationally expertise design consultants, reflecting high quality practices in respect of efficient planning. The relevant building data are provided from the clients, architects, engineers, quantity surveyors, as well as journals, books, magazines and Internet sources. The research is based on the architectural and structural design criteria affecting the space efficiency, such as floor slab size and layout, core integrity, gross and net floor areas, leasing depth, floor-to-floor and floor-to-ceiling height, and structural system.The sample buildings from the world are located in seven major cities, which are Taipei, Kuala Lumpur, Shanghai, Chicago, Hong Kong, Guangzhou and Shenzhen. The height ranges of these buildings are between 367 m and 509 m, and the numbers of stories change from 69 to 114. The Empire State Building in New York, which is currently the ninth tallest office building of the world, is omitted, since it is constructed 78 years ago. The paper tends to take contemporary examples into consideration due to the rapid changes in tall building design and construction technologies.The list of the tallest buildings of Turkey in E (2008) and SkyscraperP (2008) comprise a large number of residential towers, of which have been omitted from the list mentioned in this paper. Nine of ten selected examples of office buildings are located in İstanbul, whilethe remaining example, Mertim, is located in Mersin. Mertim, originally designed as an office building, is currently utilized as a hotel. The heights of these buildings vary between 122 m and 181 m, while the numbers of storeys change between 22 to 52, as shown in Table 1.Architectural and structural requirements are the basic decision making parameters in the design of high-rise office buildings, and dictate the floor slab size and shape, leasing depth, structural frame, floor-to-floor height, vertical transportation and core layout. The related findings of the selected buildings from the world and Turkey are presented and discussed below.Floor Slab Size and ShapeAn office buildings floor slab size and shape, on which decisions are made according to the functional requirements, clients specific needs and various constraints, have great impact on the space efficiency and the buildings external character. Although there are no universal formulas for responding to the clients needs or to local influences and constraints such as climate, codes or constructional conditions, the fundamental design considerations are identical almost in office buildings (Kohn and Katz, 2002; Strelitz, 2005). The first aim is to achieve the maximum space efficiency and in order to accomplish this task, initially the floor slab shape and total floor area of the building need to be designed.The space efficiency of a high-rise office building can be achieved by maximizing the Gross Floor Area (GFA) and Net (usable) Floor Area (NFA) as permitted on the local site by the codes and regulations, and in order to enable the developer and owner to get maximum returns from the high cost of land, the floors must have sufficient functional space (Kim and Elnimeiri, 2004). In the initial stages of the design, the designer ascertains the extent of GFA and NFA in the proposed concept design, and these figures are used as the bases for core configuration and structural system. By the final decision, the NFA is sealed with the exact core area and the vertical structural elements. Net-to-gross floor area of a typical floor slab is of crucial economic interest to the developer, since it designates the space efficiency of the floors, at the same time as the more efficient the typical floor slab is, the more usable area the developer gets and the more income is derived from the building.According to Yeang (1995; 2000), floor slab efficiency of a typical high-rise office building should generally not be less than 75%, unless the site is too small or too irregular to permit a higher level of space efficiency. Floor slab designs using clever devices, such as scissor stairs, pressurized lift shafts, dispersal of toilets etc. can increase efficiency up to 80% - 85 % per typical floor. However, as Watts et al. (2007) state in their recent article, floor slab efficiency is adversely affected by the height of a high-rise office building, as the core and structural elements expand relatively to the overall floor slab to satisfy the requirements of vertical circulation as well as lateral-load resistance. Tall buildings with high slenderness ratio are inherently more expensive to build and suffer from adverse floor slab efficiency.Although space efficiency is simply defined as the ratio of NFA to GFA, the matter is more complicated in terms of its effects. The floor slab shape also has a vital importance as well, since it influences the interior space planning, layout of office equipments, exterior building envelope, structural system and component sizes, utilizing from natural light and air, access to escape routes, etc. Generally the more simple and regular the floor slab shape is, the easier it is to respond to user requirements in terms of space planning and furnishing. Square, circular, hexagonal, octagonal and similar plan forms are more space efficient than the rectangular plans with high aspect ratios and irregular shapes. Buildings with symmetrical plan shapes are also less susceptible to wind and seismic loads (Arnold, 1980; Taranath, 1998; Kozak, 1991).The site areas of the selected examples from the world and Turkey are large due to their prestigious status, so the floor slab areas are not constrained by the maximum site coverage. The floor slab areas of buildings abroad are comparatively large due to their sheer heights, and range from 2150 m2 to 4900 m2 in typical floors, whereas the buildings from Turkey have typical floor slab areas ranging from 700 m2 to 1406 m2 (Table 3). The space efficiency of the buildings at abroad change from 60% to 77% , and the Sears Tower achieves maximum efficiency with the value of 77% , where as the Petronas Towers are least space efficient in typical floors. Garanti Bank Headquarters is a remarkable example having a high space efficiency of 77%, however, this building has multiple interior columns dispersed throughout the workspace, and these columns significantly prevent the flexibility of the usable area. The least space efficient example, the İ Bank Tower, has a relatively large core area;thus significantly decreasing the usable floor area. The selected office buildings from Turkey have different characteristics of plan geometry when compared with the ten tallest office buildings of the world. Only one case, İbank Tower has a plan shape derived from square, however, the core geometry do not match with the plan layout, thus disabling equal space efficiencies in each perimeter. Mertim and Süzer Plaza have rectangular plan forms with matching core geometries, and though they are not symmetrical in each direction, the plan configuration enables equal and efficient work spaces in each perimeter. Sabanc Towers, Metrocity 1, Beybi Giz Plaza and Garanti Bank Headquarters are the examples of hybrid and unsymmetrical plans, whereas the Tat Towers and Tekstilkent Plaza 1 and 2 are composed of hexagonal form and similar core configuration.There is a conspicuous intend that the contemporary office buildings must be designed with minimum or no interior columns to enable maximum flexibility, consequently a column-free floor slab from the exterior to the core is the optimum solution for the office development. However, as shown in Figure 1a, the analyzed buildings at abroad, except for the Sears Tower and the Central Plaza, are column free in the leasing depth. Three of the sample buildings from Turkey, Tekstilkent Plazas, Beybi Giz Plaza and Garanti Bank Headquarters, have interior columns, as Sabanc Center 1 and 2, Süzer Plaza and Metrocity 1 have peripheral columns recessed from the exterior wall. The least sufficient workplace can be observed in the typical floor plans of Garanti Bank Headquarters with multiple columns dispersed throughout the floor slab (Figure 1b). Although this building has a workplace organized into one space, the interior columns prevent the flexibility and efficiency of this usable space, presenting the disadvantage of a non-column-free floor slab as stated above.Core IntegrityThe core of the building comprises all of the vertical circulation elements, such as elevators, fire-stairs, mechanical shafts, toilets, and elevator lobbies. In early office buildings, these elements tended to be dispersed on the floor rather than concentrated, while todays contemporary buildings include all these elements in a specific zone, which is mainly the core. Many of the key structural elements, such as the shear walls that provide lateral stability, are integrated into the core in order to simplify the architectural design.Layout of the core is critical to the development efficiency and operational effectiveness of a high-rise office building, while also playing a significant role in the way the structure copes with lateral loads (Watts et al, 2007). Building cores can be arranged in several ways. Central cores integrating with the outer structure resist lateral loads more effectively and open up the perimeter for light and view, enabling efficient workplaces. Buildings with side cores have the advantage of homogeneous workplaces, which is usually organized into one space. This building type is very attractive to users without cellular offices and has until recently been the standard in Japan and Korea (Kohn and Katz, 2002). Multiple cores are common in lowrise buildings, which have very large or narrow floor slabs. The design of the core significantly affects the overall space efficiency of the buildings, vertical circulation, and distribution of mechanical and electrical shafts. In order to achieve the maximum space efficiency of a high-rise office building, the core must be reduced to an acceptable ratio of the gross floor area, while coping with the fire regulations and achieving an effective vertical transportation with the elevators.In many high-rise office buildings structural elements within and around the core interact with the perimeter frame. These structural elements can be constructed with either steel or reinforced concrete, or both. In the case of a reinforced concrete core, its structural weight can be very heavy, thus inducing an additional cost for the foundation. In United States, steel，is commonly used as the structural material and lightweight fire-rated drywall is used to form the walls in order to reduce its thickness and save the foundation cost and construction time (Ho, 2007). However, in Asian countries, the use of the structural steel with drywall forming is less common because their costs are higher than the conventional reinforced concrete construction. High-strength concrete is generally used to reduce the thickness of reinforced concrete core wall enabling more efficient spaces.Structural SystemFor contemporary high-rise office buildings, it is important to adopt a structural system to cope with an open-plan, in which all office workers perform in a common space. Several structural solutions have been developed and are combined to meet the architectural