优秀英语写作段落结构课件.ppt

paragraph writing,English Paragraph Writing,2.1 Paragraph Structure2.2 Paragraph Unity2.3 Paragraph Coherence2.4 Sentence Variety,段落是构成文章的一组句子。段落必须表达完整的意思：或描写事物（describe something），或争论某事（argue about something），或对某事提出疑问（question something），或要求什么（demand something），或给事物下定义（define something），或驳斥某观点（reject something）。,2.1 Paragraph Structure,One English paragraph usually includes the following three parts:(1) Topic SentenceSupporting / Developing Sentences (3) Concluding Sentence,Paragraph Structure Model,Topic SentenceSupporting Sentence 1 Supporting Sentence 2Supporting Sentence 3Supporting Sentence 4Concluding Sentence,Sample,We all know that cigarette smoking is a dangerous habit because it causes health problems Doctors say it can be a direct cause of cancer of the lungs and throat and can also contribute to cancer of other organs In addition， it can bring about other health problems such as heart and lung diseases It is clearly identified as one of the chief causes of death in our society,TS,DS,CS,(1) How to Write a Good Topic Sentence,Three essential points:主题句必须是一个完整的句子由主题词和主题思想的表述两部分构成只是一种概括性的陈述而不提供具体的细节作者的首要任务是让读者知道所写段落要谈的是什么，这就是每段的主题句的作用。因此主题句应该阐明段落的主要思想，所有支持主题句的细节和描述都与这一主要思想有关。,主题句的三种形式,1）肯定句（Affirmative Sentence）Example： The need for wildlife protection is greater now than ever before2）反诘句（Rhetorical Sentence）Example： How do you think people will solve the problem of wildlife protection？3）不完整句（Fragments）Example： And the workingman？初学者最好使用肯定句作为主题句。,Which is a good topic sentence?,American food is terrible.American food is tasteless and greasy because Americans use too many canned, frozen, and prepackaged foods and because everything is fried in oil or butter.American food is tasteless and greasy.,主题句的位置,主题句出现的位置有以下四种情况：1）段首（At the beginning）主题句经常居于段首，以便读者浏览主题句就可掌握文章的概要。这个位置适用于写提供信息或解释观点的段落。2）段末（At the end）用推理方法展开段落时，主题句往往位于句末。3）段中（In the middle）有时为了使段落多样化，主题句也可以居于段中。4）隐含（Implied）有时候，尤其在写叙述性或描写性段落时，当所有的细节都围绕着一个显而易见的主题时可以不用主题句。,Where is the topic sentence?,The Americans and the British not only speak the same language but also share a large number of social customsFor example，in both America and England， people shake hands when they meet each other for the first timeAlso，most English men will open a door for a woman or offer their seat to a woman， and so will most AmericansPromptness is important both in England and in AmericaThat is，if a dinner invitation is for 7 oclock， the dinner guest either arrives close to that time or calls up to explain his delay,Practice:,Identify which is the topic sentence: Systolic(收缩的)pressure between 140 and 160 indicates borderline hypertension. In the usual blood pressure reading, the systolic measurement is given first and is the higher of the two. Systolic pressure is taken when the heart is contracting to pump blood; diastolic (舒张的) pressure is taken when the heart is resting between beats. Blood pressure measurement has two components: systolic and diastolic. Normal blood pressure is a systolic measurement of 140, and when the systolic pressure is 160 or higher, then hypertension exists.,Exercise 1-1,Directions： Read the following paragraphs and find out the topic sentence， the supporting details and the concluding sentence，if there is one,The need for wildlife protection is greater now than ever beforeAbout a thousand species of animals are in danger of extinction,，and the rate at which they are being destroyed has increased With mammals， for instance， the rate of extinction is now about one species every year； from A D 1 to 1800， the rate was about one species every fifty years Everywhere， men are trying o solve the problem of preserving wildlife while caring at the same time for the worlds growing population,关于写主题句的建议,1）要写合乎语法的句子1： Two causes of the American Civil War这个句子是个不完整的句子，不合乎语法，因此不能用作主题句2： There were two causes that led to the American Civil War重写后的句子合乎语法，是个较好的主题句。,2）要使用限写词限定主题为了正确表达观点，好的主题句经常使用关键词或词组，即限制词（controllers）限制这一观点。Air travel is more convenient than train for at least three reasons上例主题句我们得知作者将要写“air travel”（ topic），他将要把 “train”（ aspect）和“ air travel”作比较，并且陈述“reasons”。由此可见，作者在“aspect”（方面）和“reason”（原因）两方面限制他的主题。,3）要注意主题的可写性所定的主题不能太笼统，也不能太具体。Example 6： Let me tell you something about overpopulation这个句子太笼统，作为一个段落的主题太大，难于驾驭。Example 7： Why has the world population been increasing so rapidly in the last decades？这个句子是个较好的主题句，作者用“the reasons foroverpopulation in the last decades”，从“原因”（cause）和“时间”（time）两方面限制了主题，能在一个段落内论述。,Supporting / developing sentences are the key words or group of words that tell what the focus will be in developing paragraph.Concrete support,(2) Supporting / Developing Sentences,My roommate Paul possesses the characteristics of good student. One of his characteristics is always being prepared for classes. For example, when his philosophy professor assigns a class discussion on the ideas of Kant, he goes to the library and does extensive research on the subject. In addition, when his English instructor assigns an out-of-class essay, he brings to class the final copy of an essay that he has revised several times.,Can you think of some developing sentences for this topic?Smoking cigarettes can be an expensive habit Cigarettes cost about seventy-five cents.The average smoker smokes two packs a day.The annual expense for this smoker is $547.50.The smoker must also pay for extra cleaning of carpets, furniture, and clothes.Smoking would cause many diseases, which will cost the smokers a lot of money to see a doctor and cure the diseases.,Activity,Try developing the topic sentences. Illustrate your personality with specific examples. I am a very sensitive person.I am a very independent person.I think I would be a good friend.,I am a very sensitive person, and thats good to some degree. I feel everyone should be able to feel or understand what others are going through. But when you hurt, cry, or are unhappy for people you dont know, or for a movie that is not real, then I think thats a little too sensitive. Thats the way I am.,I am a very independent person. I must do things for myself. I dont like people doing things for me, or helping me, or giving me things. Its not that I dont appreciate it, because I do. I just feel that when someone does something for you, you owe them, and if there is one thing I dont like to feel, its that I owe anyone anything.,I think I would be a good friend. I would do almost anything for someone I like, and would share or give anything I have. Im very caring and understanding. People trust me with their secrets, and theyre right for doing so because I never tell any secret that is told to me. Im always there to help in any way that I can. All you have to do is ask.,(3) How to Write a Good Concluding Sentence,A concluding sentence may restate the main idea in fresh words, summarize the paragraph, evaluate the supporting details, or add an insight to show the importance of the main point.使用表示段落结尾的转承信号词，如“in conclusion, in summary, finally, in brief, in sum, to conclude, all in all”等。对段落要点加以总结。对主题加以评论，给读者留下深刻的印象。,Small cars suck.Topic sentence Im six feet four, and when I sit in a Volkswagen, my knees are crammed into my chest and Im hunched forward, my head scraping the top. If I have to ride very fat, the base of my neck aches and the backs of my thighs cramp up. I also dont like their light bodies. I dont like being blown around on the freeway by strong winds or big trucks, and if I get in an accident, I know Ill come out second best. Finally, when I need a little power on a mountain grade or for passing, those four-cylinder engines dont deliver. In a word, small cars are too uncomfortable, too dangerous, and too inefficient for me. Concluding sentence,Activity,Write a concluding sentence based on the given outline.Topic Sentence: There are three things that would make me the happiest person in the world.Body Part:A happy family lifeA satisfying careerInner peace and securityConcluding Sentence: In conclusion, if I could have a warm home, a challenging job, and inner strength, I would be contented and satisfied with my life.,Practice,Finish writing the concluding sentences: Producers make more goods when prices are high, and consumers buy more goods when prices are low. As prices go up, producers make more goods because they can make more money for their goods. As prices go down, consumers buy more goods because of the low prices. This shows us,the quantity of goods will directly influence the prices and the sales volume.,Practice,Try to appreciate the following paragraph, and identify：(1) Topic sentence(2) Supporting sentences(3) Concluding sentences,Nearly all living creatures manage some form of communication. The dance patterns of bees in their hive help to point the way to distant flower fields or announce successful foraging. Male stickleback fish regularly swim upside-down to indicate outrage in a courtship contest. Male deer and lemurs mark territorial ownership by rubbing their own body secretions on boundary stones or trees. Everyone has seen a frightened dog put his tail between his legs and run in panic. We, too, use gestures, expressions, postures, and movement to give our words point.,2.2 Paragraph Unity,段落的一致性是指文章基于一个统一的主题，段落内容应保持一致，每个段落只能阐述一个中心思想，每一个句子都应与主题句密切相关。,Activity 1,Identify whether the following paragraphs are unified. Pick out any sentence which is not related to the controlling idea of the paragraph. My Favorite Hobbies I enjoy 3 hobbies in my free time. My first hobby is playing with my 2-year-old son. I especially like to teach him new words. He listens very carefully to me and copies what I say. I also like to take him for walks. When his small hands cling to my hand, I feel so close to him, and his wide smile warms my heart. If we play ball, he gets excited and screams with joy. Unfortunately, the ball makes the neighbors dog bark. My second hobby is watching TV with my son. We watch Sesame Street together almost everyday. It helps us learn English. The English on the news is too fast and really frustrates me. My son sits beside me, and sometimes we laugh until the tears come.,_,_,My third hobby is planting flowers in my garden. When I am watering the flowers, I feel a joy like the joy I feel when I am feeding my son. When I see the plants and flowers grow up inch by inch, I think of how my son is growing up, too. I wish the snails would stop eating my plants, though. These 3 hobbies fill me with a special pleasure like none I have ever experienced before.,_,_,2.3 Paragraph Coherence,cohere 表示“to stick”或“to hold together”。连贯，一是指结构上的连贯；二是指内容上的连贯。具有连贯性的段落中每个句子都很合乎逻辑地与下个句子相连接。,Two Ways to Obtain Coherence,Transition signalsLogical orderChronological OrderSpatial OrderOrder of Importance,Cohesive Devices,Transitional devices,Pronoun reference,The use of synonyms,Repetition of key words,Parallel,运用关联词表达时间顺序、递进、转折、让步、比较、对比、举例、总结等,用代词指代前面提到过的人或事,用同义词表达与前面同样的意义，使得用词不单调,重复关键词,平行结构,Illustration,Please analyze and identify the transition devices used in the following paragraph. Transitions are the glue that holds a paragraph together. These devices lead the reader from sentence to sentence, smoothing over the gaps between by indicating the relationship between the sentences. If this glue is missing, the paragraph will almost inevitably sound choppy or childish, even if every sentence in it responds to a single topic commitment. However, transitions are not substitutes for topic unity: like most glue, they are most effective when joining similar objects, or, in this case, similar ideas. For example, in a paragraph describing a chicken egg, no transition could bridge the gap created by the inclusion of a sentence concerned with naval losses in the Civil War. In other words, transitions can call attention to the topic relationships between sentences, but they cannot create those relationships.,Practice,Other Coherence Devices,Anaphora (指代)Coherence Through Repetition (重复)They decided to begin again: to begin hoping, to begin trying to change, to begin working toward a goal.During those years when I was just learning to speak, my mother and father addressed me only in Spanish; in Spanish I learned to reply.,Read the paragraph below carefully, and then write an appropriate connector in each blank.The unfriendly appearance of the office caused me to be almost as frightened as did the fact that I was being called before a college official to explain my behavior. _ was the deans desk. Very neatly arranged stacks of papers covered the entire top. _ was a window through which the sun shone brightly. As the dean made no move to close the blind, I had to choose between staring guiltily at the spotless floor or being blinded by the merciless light. _ stood several neatly arranged and dusted filing cabinets probably filled with folders of students who had been disciplined for unacceptable behavior. After a few seconds, the dean invited me to sit in the polished chair _ of his desk. From this uncomfortable position, I tried to explain my behavior. Now that I look back on this experience, I find that nothing was more frightening about the situation than the office itself.,It,There,There,in front,Activity,Read the following paragraphs carefully and answer questions. (1) What is the controlling idea? (2) What is the primary method used to arrange details: time order, spatial order, or order of importance? (3) How many details are there in the paragraph?,Practice,In my 25 years as a secretary, I have had to master three different kinds of writing machines. I began my career on the manual typewriter. I soon learned to handle it efficiently and typed between sixty-five and seventy words per minute. Then ten years later, I found myself being forced to adapt to an electric typewriter. At first, I swore I preferred a manual because I had trouble remembering not to hit the keys as hard. Also, it took me several days to quit reaching for a carriage return. After a while, however, I would not have considered returning to a manual. Recently, I was persuaded to give up my electric typewriter for a word processor. Always resistant to change, I complained in the beginning about having to remember the new keyboard and the commands. But after using the word processor for less than six months, I dont believe I would consider returning to the age of the electric typewriter.,2.4 Sentence Variety,Varied sentence structuresVaried sentence beginningsParallel structure Varied diction,Varied sentence structures 长短句交替,Writing is a skill. Writing is a skill like driving, typing, or cooking. Like any skill, it can be learnedif you decide that you are going to learn and then really work at it. This book will give you the extensive practice needed to develop your writing skills.,Varied Sentence beginnings,Proud and relieved, they watched their daughter receive her diploma.Hungrily, the boy devoured his lunch.Famous for having discovered penicillin, Alexander Flemin was a British scientist.,Parallel structure,With this faith we will be able