新编语言学教程第一章ppt课件.ppt

A Course on Linguistics for Students of EnglishLinguistics: A New Coursebook新编语言学教程,The Goals for this Course,To get a scientific view on language;To understand some basic theories on linguistics;To understand the applications of the linguistic theories, especially in the fields of language teaching To prepare for the future research work.,语言学学习应注意的方面：,1) 术语问题 2）语言学理论问题 3）语言学研究方法问题 4）语言学研究名家 5）学习习惯问题,Chapter 1 Introduction,I Linguistics 1. Definition of linguistics2. Linguistics and traditional grammar3. Use of studying linguistics 4. Scope of linguistics II Language 1. Why Study Language?2. Definitions of language3. Origin of language 4. Design Features of Language5. Functions of language Some major concepts in linguistics,1. Definition of Linguistics,Linguistics is the scientific or systematic study of language (p.1). 语言学常被定义为一门关于语言的科学或对语言的科学研究。A person who studies linguistics is known as a linguist.,1)Four principles of linguistic studies(P1),Exhaustiveness/adequacy （穷尽性）：use adequate samples in the study.The linguists should gather all the materials relevant to his investigation and give them an adequate explanation. If he leaves many facts undiscussed or unexplained, his study will not be regarded as exhaustive and his conclusions will not be accepted as scientific.,Consistency （一致性）：keep the rules consistent in the study of a language. There should be no contradiction between different parts of the total statement.Economy （简洁性、经济性）：rule out the redundancy, make key part stand out in language description or language analysis. Other things being equal, a short statement or analysis is preferred to a longer or more complex one.,Objectivity（客观性）：describe a language as it is.A linguist should be as objective as possible in his description and analysis of data and cannot allow prejudice to influence his generalizations.,2) Two purposes (p.2)a. Linguistics studies the nature of language in order to establish a theory of language and describes languages in the light of the theory established.b. Linguistics examines all the forms of language in general and seeks a scientific understanding of the ways in which it is organized to fulfill the needs it serves and the functions it performs in human life.,2. The difference between linguistics and traditional grammar (P2-3)Traditional grammar, as a pre-20th century language description and pre-linguistic product of research, was based upon earlier grammars of Latin or Greek (e.g. English had six cases because Latin had six cases) , and laid emphasis on correctness, literary excellence, the use of Latin models, and the priority of written language.,2. Linguistics vs. Traditional Grammar,A. Linguistics is descriptive, not prescriptive.,A linguist is interested in what is said, not what he thinks ought to be said. He describes language in all its aspects, but does not prescribe rules of correctness.,He does not believe that there is some absolute standard of correctness,concerning language use.,Instead, he would prefer to be an observer and recorder of facts, but not a judge.,Traditional grammar was very strongly normative in character. The grammarian saw it as his task to formulate the standards of correctness and to impose these, if necessary, upon the speakers of the language.,B.Linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written.,c) Linguistics differs from traditional grammar in that it does not force languages into a Latin-based framework.,Traditional grammar - prescriptive, written, Latin-based framework 规定性的、书面语的，放进一个拉丁语为基础的框架内Modern linguistics - descriptive, spoken, not necessarily Latin-based framework 描述性的、口头语的，不强行放进一个拉丁语为基础的框架内,Weakpoints of Traditional Grammar,1. 规定语言学家在判断语言的正确与否时常从逻辑学的角度加以观察，但是却忽视了语言在受一般逻辑规律支配的同时，又有自身的规律，使得语言规律与逻辑规律既有相似性又有相异性。,以双重否定为例。从逻辑学的角度来看，否定之否定就是肯定。正因如此，规定语法学家认为： I didnt do nothing.正确的解释为: It is not true that I did nothing.或 I did something.,但是，英语使用的现实却是这两种相互矛盾的语义都存在。语义的区别是通过语言的语音规律加以实现的。在前者， “didnt”重读，而后者 “didnt不重读 。,再看下列例句： All the children didnt sleep (All the children failed to sleep.) All the children didnt sleep. (Not all the children failed to sleep.),这两个话语在语义上的差异也是违反了传统逻辑规律。语音规律的介入很好地解决了这一问题： All the children didnt sleep. (重音落在sleep上，且使用降调) All the children didnt sleep.（重音落在all上，且使用降升调）,事实上，这种突破一般逻辑规律的现象在其它语言中也时常可见。以汉语为例： 今天街上好热闹。 今天街上好不热闹。,再看汉语中的“差点儿”和“差点儿没”两个表达法： 他差点儿摔倒了。 他差点儿没摔倒。,我差点儿通过了考试。 我差点儿没通过考试。,如果用“差点儿”和“差点儿没”去修饰说话人希望实现的事情，那么“差点儿”含有惋惜希望的事情未能实现，而“差点儿没”是指庆幸希望的事情发生了。,2. There are no absolute standards of correctness in language uses.,秋浦歌白发三千丈， 缘愁似个长。不知明镜里， 何处得秋霜。单看“白发三千丈”一句，真叫人无法理解：白发怎么能有“三千丈”呢？愁生白发，人所共晓，而长达三千丈，该有多少深重的愁思。十个字的千钧重量落在一个“愁”字上。以此写愁，匪夷所思。奇想出奇句，不能不使人惊叹诗人的气魄和笔力。,3. Use of studying linguistics (pp.3-4)1) To have an overview of human language;2) To understand that human languages have important features in common though they differ greatly in many details;3) To go along the path leading to the final profession either as a teacher of foreign languages or as a researcher of linguistics or translation (p.4),4. Scope of linguistics (pp.4-8)1) microlinguistics VS macrolinguistics Microlinguistics: Phonetics, Phonology, Morphology, Syntax, Semantics, Pragmatics. These branches are at the very center of linguistic scope. Macrolinguistics: Sociolinguistics, Psycholinguistics, Neurolinguistics, Stylistics, Discourse analysis , Computational linguistics , Cognitive linguistics These branches are related to something that is not at the center of linguistic scope.,2) Linguistics classified from different perspectivesfunctional linguistics VS formal linguisticsthe former stresses the function of language and the latter stresses the form of languagetheoretical linguistics VS applied linguisticsthe former studies the “pure” theory in language and the latter studies how to apply the theory,Theoretical linguisticsPhonetics 语音学Phonology 音系学Morphology形态学Syntax 句法学Semantics 语义学Use of linguisticsApplied linguistics 应用语言学Sociolinguistics 社会语言学Psycholinguistics 心理语言学 ,corpus linguisticslinguistic description based on the extensive accumulation of naturally occurring language data and its analysis by computers语料库语言学forensic linguisticsthe examination of linguistic evidence for legal purposes 法律语言学mathematical linguisticsthe study of the mathematical properties of language数学语言学anthropological linguisticsthe study of language in cross-cultural settings人类语言学,3) Recent developments of linguistics:Corpus linguistics, Discourse Analysis, Cognitive linguistics, Computational linguistics, Mathematical linguistics,II Language 1. Why Study Language?,finding out more about how the brain works; How children learn language; What the relationship between meaning and perception is; What role of language is in different cultures; ,Fundamental views about language,Children learn their native language swiftly, efficiently and without instruction.Language operates by rules.All languages have three major components: a sound system, a system of lexico-grammar and a system of semantics.Everyone speaks a dialect.Language slowly changes.Speakers of all languages employ a range of styles and a set of jargons.Languages are intimately related to the societies and individuals who use them.,2. What is Language?,Language “is not to be confused with human speech which is only a definite part, though certainly an essential one. It is both a social product of the faculty of speech and a collection of necessary conventions that have been adopted by a social body to permit individuals to exercise that faculty”.-Ferdinand de Saussure (索绪尔：1857-1913),“Language is a purely human and non-instinctive method of communicating ideas, emotions and desires by means of voluntarily produced symbols.”-Edward Sapir (萨丕尔 ，1884-1939):,“From now on I will consider language to be a set (finite or infinite) of sentences, each finite in length and constructed out of a finite set of elements.”-Noam Chomsky (诺姆乔姆斯基， 1928- ),语言是人类特有的一种符号系统。当作用于人与人的关系的时候，它是表达相互反应的中介；当作用于人与客观世界的关系的时候，它是认知事物的工具；当作用于文化的时候，它是文化信息的载体。 （许国璋中国大百科全书语言文字）,A generally acceptable definition:,Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. 语言是一个具有任意性用于人类交流的语音符号系统,Language is a system,Systemic- rule-governed, elements in it are arranged according to certain rules; cant be combined at will.e.g. *bkli, *I apple eat.语言是一个系统，语言的要素是根据规则组合在一起的。,Language is arbitrary,Arbitrary- no intrinsic connection between the word and the thing it denotes, e.g. “pen” by any other name is the thing we use to write with.语言符号和符号所代表的事物之间没有内在的必然的联系.,“pen”,“other name”,By saying that “language is arbitrary”, we mean that there is no logical connection between meanings and .,考研链接,中山大学2003年考题,sound,Language is primarily vocal,Vocal- the primary medium is sound for all languages; writing system came much later than spoken form. 语言是有声的，因为所有语言的首要媒介都是声音.,Writing is derivative of speech.,Language is symbolic in nature,Symbolic- words are associated with objects, actions ideas by convention. 象征性词语只是符号，它们通过习惯与物体、动作和概念联系起来。,“桌子”, “Desk”,convention,“A rose by any other name would smell as sweet”,Convention,Language is human-specific,Human-specific- different from the communication systems other forms of life possess, e.g. bird songs, bee dance, animal cries.语言是人类独有的，有别于其他生物的交际系统鸟有鸟语，人有人言。Bertrand Russell once observed: “No matter how eloquently a dog may bark, he cannot tell you that his parents were poor but honest.,3. Origin of language (pp.9-10)Because no one can say how and when language originated, there are some speculations about it. 1) Plato: There was a “perfect” language;2) Socrates: Imitation of natural sounds was the basis for the origin of language;3) Mans instinctive response to certain external stimuli was the basis for the origin of language;,4) Ding-Dong Theory: Human speech developed from primitive man giving vocal expression to the objects he encountered; 5) Sing-Song Theory: Language developed from primitive ritual songs of praise;6) “Poor-Pooh (Exclamation or Interjectional) Theory” stresses the speakers emotion; (感叹说:认为语言起源于感叹词) 7) “Yo-He-Ho Theory”: cries uttered during strain of work;劳动号子说,8) “Ta-Ta Theory”: Language came from the combination of certain gestures and tongue movement;9) “Bow-Wow Theory”: imitation of animal cries and other sounds heard in nature.10). “The Divine origin”: Language is a gift of God to mankind. Conclusion: Language originates, grows and develops in society.,4. Design Features of Language 语言本质特征,Language distinguishes human beings from animals in that it is far more sophisticated than any animal communication system.,The design/defining features of human language,Arbitrariness 任意性Duality 二重性/两重性/二元性Productivity/Creativity 创造性,能产性Interchangeability 互换性Displacement 移位性/跨时空性Specialization 专门化Cultural Transmission文化传递性,(1) Arbitrariness,-No logical (motivated or intrinsic) connection between sounds and meanings. 语言符号的形式和意义间没有自然的联系 eg: Dogs barks “汪汪” in Chinese but “bowwow” in EnglishException: Onomatopoeic words 象/拟声词(which imitate natural sounds) are somewhat motivated ( English: rumble, crackle, bang, . Chinese: putong, shasha, dingdang ),But the vast majority of the words in all languages are non-onomatopoeic: The connection between their form and their meaning is arbitrary in that, given the form, it is impossible to predict the meaning and, given the meaning, it is impossible to predict the form.,Some compound words are not entirely arbitrary, e.g. type-writer, shoe-maker, air-conditioner, photocopyArbitrariness at the syntactic level: language is not arbitrary at the syntactic level. He came in and sat down. (the sequence of actions)He sat down and came in. (opposite the sequence, maybe he got into wheelchair and propelled himself into room)He sat down after he came in. (use “after” to reverse the order of the clause),Conclusion:The link between a linguistic sign and its meaning is a matter of convention.,2013年,专八链接,39. _is a language phenomenon in which words sound like what they refer to. Onomatopoeia CollocationC. Denotation D. Assimilation,(2) Duality (double articulation),Lower level-sounds (meaningless)Higher level-meaning (larger units of meaning)Eg: /k/,/a:/, /p/=carp/ka:p/,or /pa:k/A communication system with duality is considered more flexible than one without it, for a far greater number of messages can be sent. 有两个结构层次，上层结构的单位是由底层结构的元素组成的。二重性使得人类语言具有巨大的能动性，使为数不多的几个元素就可以创造出大量不同的单位。,(3) Productivity/creativity,-Peculiar to human languages，users of language can understand and produce sentences they have never heard before, e.g. we can understand sentence like “ A red-eyed elephant is dancing on the hotel bed”, though it does not describe a common happening in the world. Furthermore, human can theoretically create a infinite length sentences. eg: He bought a book which was written by a teacher who taught in a school which was known for its graduates who .语言的能产性使得说话人仅用基础的语言单位就可创造出无限多的句子，其中大部分说话人可能没有听过也没有说过。这一特征也使人类语言不同于动物它们只能传递一些有限的信息。,(4) Interchangeability 互换性,Interchangeability or reciprocity refers to the fact that man can both produce and receive messages, and his roles as a speaker and a hearer can be exchanged at ease.,(5) Displacement,-Language can be used to refer to things, which are not present: real or imagined matters in the past, present or future, or in far-away places. Thus, we can refer to Confucius, or the North Pole, even though the first has been dead for over 2550 years and the second is situated far away from us. 移位性是指语言使用者可以用语言表达不在交际现场（时间和空间）的物体、事件及概念。例如，我们可以谈论孔夫子或者北极，尽管孔夫子是四千多年前的人物而北极也遥不可及。,Animal communication is normally under “immediate stimulus control”(直接刺激控制). For instance, a warning cry of a bird instantly announces danger. Human language is stimulus-free. What we are talking about need not be triggered by any external stimulus in the world or any internal state.,Displacement benefits human beings by giving us the power to handle generalizations and abstractions. Once we can talk about physically distant thing, we acquire the ability to understand concepts which denote “non-things”, such as truth and beauty.,(6) SpecializationIt refers to the fact that man does not have a total physical involvement in the act of communication. We use language in a detached manner. We can talk about an exciting experience while engaged in activities completely detached from the subject under discussion.Eg: A man can discuss a football game with his friend while driving a car.,(7) Cultural TransmissionIt means that language is not genetically passed down from one generation to another. Rather, language has to be learned.A Chinese speaker and an English speaker are not mutually intelligible. This shows that language is culturally transmitted. That is, it is pass on from one generation to the next by teaching and learning, rather than by instinct.The story of a wolf child, a pig child shows that a human being brought up in isolation simply does not acquire human language.,2005,39. Which of the following is NOT a distinctive feature of human langu